CHAPTER 4:

General
Features of
Cells

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Cell theory
1. All living organisms are composed of one or
more cells
2. Cells are the smallest units of life
3. New cells come only from pre-existing cells
by cell division

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Microscopy - Parameters
Allows us to see very small structures - cells
Magnification
Ratio between the size of an image produced
by a microscope and its actual size
Resolution
Ability to observe two adjacent objects as
distinct from one another
Contrast
How different one structure looks from another
– enhanced by dyes

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Microscopy
2 groups of microscopes based on source of
illumination
Light microscope
 Uses light for illumination

 Resolution 0.2 µm

Electron microscope
 Uses an electron beam; shorter

wavelength
 Resolution 2 nm

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Nucleus

Small Proteins Viruses Mitochondria

molecules

Atoms Lipids Ribosomes Smallest Most Most plant and Fish egg Bird egg
bacteria bacteria animal cells

Human height

Electron microscope

Light microscope

Unaided human eye

0.1 nm 1 nm 10 nm 100 nm 1 m 10 m 100 m 1 mm 1 cm 0.1 m 1m 10 m

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Electron microscope types
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Beam of electrons transmitted through sample
Thin slices stained with heavy metals
Some electrons are scattered by metals (appear
dark) while others pass through to form an
image
Cross sectional view
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
View surface of sample
Sample coated with heavy metal
Beam scans surface to make 3D image based on
secondary electron emission
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Life
 All life can be placed into 2 broad categories
based on cell structure
1.Prokaryotes – lack membrane bound nucleus
2.Eukaryotes – have membrane bound nucleus

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Prokaryotic cells
Simple cell structure
Lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus and
organelles
2 categories- bacteria and archaea
Both small
Bacteria- abundant, most not harmful
Archaea- less common, often found in extreme
environments

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Typical bacterial cell
Plasma membrane- barrier; phospholipids
Cytoplasm- contained inside plasma
membrane
Nucleoid- region where genetic material
found
Ribosomes- involved in protein synthesis

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Typical bacterial cell
Many structures are located outside the
plasma membrane
Cell wall- rigid; support and protection
Glycocalyx- viscous covering; traps water,
protection from drying
 Capsule – very thick glycocalyx; may help

evade immune system

Appendages- pilli (attachment to surfaces
and each other), flagella (locomotion)

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Nucleoid region

Ribosomes
Plasma
membrane

Cytoplasm

Cell wall

Pili Glycocalyx

Flagella 0.5 µm

(a) A typical rod-shaped bacterium (b) An electron micrograph of Escherichia coli

b: © Dr. Dennis Kunkel Microscopy/Visuals Unlimited

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Eukaryotic cells
DNA housed inside the nucleus
Membrane bound
Organelles – membrane bound structures
with unique functions
Shape, size, and organization of cells vary
considerably among different species and
even among different cell types of the same
species

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Nucleus
Nuclear pore
Nuclear envelope

Centrosome
Nucleolus
Lysosome

Rough ER
Ribosome

Smooth ER
Chromatin

Mitochondrion Plasma membrane

Cytoskeleton

Cytosol
Peroxisome
Golgi apparatus

Compartmentalization allows different cell functions

to occur in different areas of cell 16
Different morphologies

17
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Nucleus Nuclear pore
Nuclear envelope
Ribosome

Nucleolus
Smooth ER

Central vacuole

Chromatin
Rough ER

Cytosol Plasma membrane

Mitochondrion

Chloroplast
Cell wall

Peroxisome

Golgi apparatus
Cytoskeleton

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The Proteome Determines the
Characteristics of a Cell
How does a single organism produce different
types of cells?
Identical DNA in different cells but different
proteomes
The proteome of a cell determines its structure
and function
Gene regulation, amount of protein, amino acid
sequence of a particular protein, and protein
modification can influence a cell’s proteome
Proteomes in healthy cells are different from
the proteomes of cancerous cells
Cytosol
Region of a eukaryotic cell that is outside the
cell organelles but inside the plasma
membrane
Aqueous medium
Cytoplasm includes everything inside the
plasma membrane
Cytosol, the endomembrane system and the
semiautonomous organelles
Many chemical reactions occur in cytosol

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Metabolism in cytosol
Sum of all chemical reactions by cells needed
for energy
Enzymes help accelerate these reactions
Catabolism- breakdown of a molecule into
smaller components
Liberates energy stored in chemical bonds to
sustain life
Anabolism- synthesis of cellular molecules
and macromolecules
Cytosol is central coordinating region for
many metabolic activities of eukaryotic cells
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Translation
Process of polypeptide synthesis
Information within a gene is ultimately
translated into the sequence of amino acids in
a polypeptide
Ribosome- site of synthesis
Transfer RNA (tRNA)- brings amino acids
Messenger RNA (mRNA)- information to
make a polypeptide

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Cytoskeleton
Network of 3 different types of protein filaments
Microtubules
Long, hollow cylindrical structures made of tubulin
protein
Dynamic instability – grow and shorten - mitosis
Initiate from centrosome
Intermediate filaments
Intermediate in size
Form twisted, ropelike structure; stable structures
Actin filaments
Also known as microfilaments
Long, thin fibers; dynamic structures
Concentrated near plasma membrane
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Motor Proteins
Use ATP as a source of energy to promote
movement
Three domains:
Head (motor)
Hinge (bends to initiate movement)
Tail (carries carg0)
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Tail — binds to Hinge —

other components region
that bends

Head — motor; site of ATP

binding and hydrolysis

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Actin filament

Minus end

ATP binding and

hydrolysis

ATP ADP + P
Motor Proteins
Three different kinds of movements

Move cargo from one location to another

Motor protein can remain in place and cause

the filament to move
 Muscle contraction

Motor protein and filament restricted in their

movement exerts a force that causes the
filament to bend
 Cellular movement

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Cargo

Motor
protein
(kinesin)

– +
Microtubule

(a) Motor protein moves

Motor
proteins
in a fixed
position
– +

Actin
filament
– + moves to
the left

(b) Filament moves + + +

+
Motor
protein
(dynein)
Linking
protein

– – –
–

(c) Filaments bend 30

Flagella and cilia
Cell appendages that facilitate movement by
bending
Flagella are usually longer than cilia
Movement through whip-like action
Cilia tend to cover all or part of the surface of a
cell
Movement through coordinated fashion

Share the same internal structure

9 + 2 microtubule array
Movement involves the propagation of a bend,
which begins at the base of the structure and
proceeds toward the tip
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Outer doublet Axoneme

microtubule
Dynein arm

Radial
spoke

Cilium Linking
Central protein
microtubule pair

Plasma
membrane

Triplet
Basal microtubule
body Triplet
microtubule

a: © Aaron Bell; b-c: © Dr. William Dentler/University of Kansas

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Endomembrane system
Network of membranes enclosing the
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles
Also includes plasma membrane
May be directly connected to each other or
pass materials via vesicles (membrane
enclosed spheres)

34
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Nucleus

Animal cell Plant cell

Nuclear envelope

Lysosome

Peroxisome
Vacuole
Endoplasmic
reticulum

Golgi
apparatus
Plasma
membrane

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Nuclear envelope
Nucleus contains genetic material
Double-membrane (two layers) structure
enclosing nucleus
Outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is
continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
membrane
Nuclear pores through membranes provide
passageways in and out of nucleus
Materials within the nucleus are not part of
the endomembrane system

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 Nucleus
Chromosomes
Composed of DNA and protein = chromatin
Nuclear matrix
Filamentous network
Organizes chromosomes
Nucleolus - ribosome assembly (remember
translation; protein production)

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Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Network of membranes that form flattened,
fluid-filled tubules or cisternae
ER membrane encloses a single
compartment called the ER lumen (internal
space)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
Studded with ribosomes (from nucleolus)
Involved in protein synthesis and sorting
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)
Lacks ribosomes
Detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism, calcium
balance, synthesis and modification of lipids
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Nuclear
Nucleolus Nucleus envelope Rough ER Smooth ER Nucleus

0.1
0.1 µm
µm

Ribosomes ER lumen Cisternae Rough ER Smooth ER Mitochondrion

© Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc/Phototake

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Golgi apparatus
Also called the Golgi body, Golgi complex, or simply
Golgi
Stack of flattened, membrane-bounded
compartments
Contain enzymes that modify proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates
Vesicles transport materials between stacks
Three overlapping functions
Secretion, processing, and protein sorting

Proinsulin made in ER – sorted with enzymes in Golgi –

proinsulin processed to insulin by enzymes –
secretion by secretory vesicles – plasma membrane
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Secretory pathway
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Palade Demonstrated Secreted Proteins
Move Sequentially
Used pulse-chase experiments to trace path
of radioactive proteins
Studied pancreatic cells – primary function is
protein secretion
Dark spots in TEM images revealed
radioactive proteins
Experiments provided first evidence that
secreted proteins are synthesized into rough
ER and then move through a series of
compartments before they are secreted
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HYPOTHESIS Proteins that are to be secreted follow a particular intracellular pathway. y.
KEY MATERIALS Male guinea pigs.

Experimental level Conceptual level

1 Inject guinea pigs with a radioactive

amino acid, [3H]-leucine. After 3

ne
minutes, inject them with nonlabeled

ci
leucine, which is called a chase.

eu
e Pancreas

]-l
cin

[ 3H
eu
dl
bele
nla
No

2 At various times after the second Pancreatic

injection, remove samples of cell
pancreatic cells.

3 Stain the sample with osmium

tetroxide, which is a heavy metal that
binds to membranes. Osmium
tetroxide

Sample from
pancreas

4 Cut thin sections of the samples, and

place a thin layer of
radiation-sensitive emulsion over the Thin
sample. Allow time for radioactive section
emission from radiolabeled proteins
to precipitate silver atoms in the
emulsion. Add
radiation-sensitive
emulsion

5 Observe the sample under a

transmisson electron microscope.

6 THE DATA

Nucleus
Time after chase
ER
5 min
Golgi
Secretory
vesicles

Rough ER
Nucleus 15 min

Labeled
proteins

>30 min

5 minutes after chase

7 CONCLUSION To be secreted, proteins move from the ER to the Golgi to secretory vesicles and then to the plasma membrane, where they
are released to the outside of the cell.
8 SOURCE Caro, L.G., and Palade, G.E. 1964. Protein synthesis, storage, and discharge in the pancreatic exocrine cell. An autoradiographic
study. Journal of Cell Biology 20:473–495.

Reproduced from Journal of Cell Biology, 1964, 20:473-495. Copyright 1964 Rockefeller University Press
Lysosomes
Breakdown of organic molecules
Contain acid hydrolases (enzymes that
perform hydrolysis)
Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids,
and lipids
Autophagy
Recycling of worn-out organelles through
endocytosis

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Vacuoles
Functions of vacuoles are extremely varied,
and they differ among cell types and even
environmental conditions
Central vacuoles in plants
Storage of water, proteins, etc.
Support; turgor pressure
Contractile vacuoles in protists for expelling
excess water
Phagocytic vacuoles in protists and white
blood cells for degradation; like lysosomes
contain enzymes
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Peroxisomes
Small organelles found in all eukaryotic cells
Catalyze reactions that break down toxic
molecules by removing hydrogen or adding
oxygen

RH2 + O2  R +H2O2

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a by-product

H O is TOXIC; makes free radicals
2 2

Catalase in peroxisomes breaks down H2O2

2 H2O2 + catalase  2 H2O + O2

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Imports additional
proteins
Premature peroxisome Mature peroxisome

Division

ER

0.25 µm

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Tesler, photographer

Peroxisome formation
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Plasma membrane
Boundary between the cell and the
extracellular environment
Functions
Membrane transport in and out of cell
 Selectively permeable

Cell signaling using receptors

 Changes in environment

 Cell communication

Cell adhesion

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Cell adhesion

Cell 1

Glucose
Membrane transport

Cell 2
Extracellular
signal

Cell signaling
Cellular
Signal response
transduction
pathway

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Semiautonomous organelles
Can grow and divide to reproduce themselves
Not completely autonomous because they
depend on other parts of the cell for their
internal components
Mitochondria and chloroplasts

52
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Animal cell

Mitochondrion

Chloroplast

Plant cell
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Mitochondria
Outer and inner membranes
Intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
Primary role is to make ATP
Molecule important for many cellular processes
 Cell division, contraction, etc.
Also synthesis, modification, and breakdown of
several types of other molecules (ex. hormones)
Contain their own DNA, divide by binary fission

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Chloroplasts
Found in nearly all species of plants and algae
Photosynthesis (chp 8)
Capture light energy and use some of that
energy to synthesize organic molecules such as
glucose
Outer and inner membrane
Intermembrane space
Third membrane called thylakoid membrane
Forms flattened tubules that stack on top of one
another
Contain chlorophyll (green) and their own DNA
Plastid
Others include chromoplasts (fruit and flower color)
and amyloplasts (stores starch)
Divides by binary fission
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