CHAPTER #09

PHYSICAL OPTICS
It discusses nature of light & its
properties, like interference, diffraction &
polarization

Course Designed for: Class XI

By Irshad Ali
Lecturer (Physics)
Aga Khan Higher Secondary School, Chitral
01/20/2025
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.1 NATURE OF LIGHT

9.1.1 Discuss different points of
view about nature of light

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9.1.1 Discuss different points of view about nature
 Light is the form of ofenergy,
light the nature of light
was studied by many scientists until about the
middle of the seventeenth century.
 To explain the nature of light, the following
theories have been enunciated by various
 physicists.
Corpuscular Theory of Light
 Newton believed that light consists of a stream
of tiny particles, called “corpuscles”.

 A luminous body emits corpuscles in all

directions with tremendous speed. 01/20/2025
9.1.1 Discuss different points of view about nature
of light propagation, reflection,
 This theory explained rectilinear
refraction, transmission & absorption of light.
 This theory predicted that, light would travel faster in a
material medium (e.g glass ) than in vacuum ( or air)
 Wave Theory of Light
 In 1678, the Dutch scientist Christian Huygens ( a
contemporary of Newton) shows that light consists of wave.
 Properties like, interference , diffraction & polarization
all can be explained.
 This theory failed to explain the photoelectric effect, black
body radiation, & Compton effect.
 This theory predicted that the speed of light in a denser
medium is slower than in a rarer medium.
 The confirmation of this wave theory was experimentally
proved by English physicist Thomas Young. He
experimentally proved that light exhibits an interference
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behavior.
9.1.1 Discuss different points of view about nature
 Electromagnetic waveof light
theory of light
 In 1873, the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell
showed that light is a form of high frequency
 electromagnetic
It consists of anwave .
oscillating electric field & an oscillating
 magnetic
Both the field.
fields are perpendicular to each other.
 This theory explained all the properties of light, but it
failed to explain the photoelectric effect, Black body
 radiation & Compton effect
Quantum theory of light
 In 1900, a German physicist Max Plank Quantum,
proposed that light is form of electromagnetic radiations,
which are emitted & absorbed in the form of discrete
bundles of energy of electromagnetic waves, called
 “quanta”. The energy carried by each quanta is given by E
Thus it is believed that light has a dual nature. That is in
=hf
some circumstances it behaves like a wave & in some other
circumstances it behaves like a particle.
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9.1.1 Discuss different points of view about nature
of light
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT

WAVE NATURE PARTICLE

OF LIGHT NATURE OF
LIGHT OF
REFLECTION
INTERFERNECE
OF LIGHT LIGHT OF
REFRACTION
LIGHT OF
DISPERSION
DIFFRACTION
LIGHT
PHOTOELECTRIC
OF LIGHT
EFFECT
COMPTON EFFECT
POLRIZATION BLACK BODY RADIATION
OF LIGHT So in this chapter we discuss only
the wave nature of light.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.1 NATURE OF LIGHT

9.1.2 Discuss the concept of wave-
front

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 9.1.2 Discuss the concept of wave-front
 Wave-front inform us that how the light
propagate in all possible directions.
 It is a imaginary surface which joins a set of
points which are in the same phase in a wave
 motion.
A wave-front
OR is a surface on which all the points
have the same phase of vibration.
 Let’s consider a point source like light bulb.
 A line normal to the
wave-front, indicate the
These ray of light direction of wave
are identical to motion is called a ray of
each other in the
light.
same
It is phase S
spherical
wave-front

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 9.1.2 Discuss the concept of wave-front
 Types of wave-front
 Spherical wave-front:
 when light produced from point source.
 Plane wave-front:
 When light produced from plane source.

 plane wave-front can also

be convert into spherical
wave-front by using single
slit 01/20/2025
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.1 NATURE OF LIGHT

9.1.3 Describe the Huygens's
Principle

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 9.1.3 Describe the Huygen's
 If the position of aPrinciple
wave-front is known at one instant
 It’s position at a later time t can be found by using
 Huygen’s principlestated that each point on the wave-front is
Huygen’s principle
considered to be a source of secondary spherical or plane
wavelets which spread out at the wave speed c.
 The new wave-front is the surface that touches all the wavelets
(in forward direction)
 Huygen’s principle works for all types of waves, including water
waves, sound waves & light waves.
Constructed
Wave-front
Secondary
source

First position of
spherical Secondary
wave-front wavelet
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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.2 INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT
9.2.1 Describe coherent sources of
light

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  9.2.1 Describe coherent
 Let’s consider we have two sources of light
sources of light

 Both sources have…………

 Same frequency
 Same wavelength
 Zero or Constant phase difference
 Two sources of light are said to be coherent when the light
emitted from sources having the same frequency, same
wavelength and zero or constant phase difference .
 Example of coherent source of light is LASER
light.
Are two independent source of light can be
coherent?? 01/20/2025
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.2 INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT
9.2.2 Define interference of light

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9.2.2Define interference of light
 Interference of light waves is the modification
in the distribution of light energy due to
superposition of two or more waves to give a
 resultant wave.
When waves from two sources superpose each
other, then under suitable conditions, they
reinforce each other at some points and cancel
at other points. This phenomenon is called
interference of light.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.2 INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT
9.2.3 State conditions necessary
for the interference of light

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 9.2.3 State conditions necessary for the
interference
Interference of light wavesof light
are not easy to observed
because of the random emission of light in which
the short wavelengths of light involved ( about 400
nm toorder
So in 700 nm ).
to observe stable interference of light
wave the following condition must be obeyed
1. Phase Coherence:
The sources must be
2. Monochromatic
coherent.
Waves:
The sources should be
of the same wavelength
3.
(orAmplitude
of single (or
intensity) of the sources
wavelength).
waves must be equal
4. The superposition
principle must apply 01/20/2025
 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.2 INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT
9.2.4 Explain Young’s double slit
experiment

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9.2.4 Explain Young’s double slit
experiment
In 1801, British physicist, Sir Thomas
Young , devised a simple method to
obtain the interference of light.

Double Slit: He used a single source of

monochromatic light & illuminated a screen with
narrow slits. Thus original beam of light is splited
into two parts, which are coherent. So interference
effects can be observed.

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9.2.4 Explain Young’s double slit
Interference
experimentPattern: The interference pattern
consists of alternate bright and dark bands called “
interference bands” or “ fringes” which can be
observed on the
Constructive screen.
Interference: Bright fringes will be
observed on the screen due to crests fall on crests
or troughs on
Destructive troughs.
Interference: Dark fringes will be
observed on the screen due to crests fall on troughs
or troughs on crests.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS

9.2 INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT
9.2.5 Derive relation for fringe
spacing & use the relation in solving
word problems

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9.2.5 Derive relation for fringe spacing & use the relation in solving word
problems
 Let’s assume two slits are placed separately at distance d.
 And a screen is kept placed at distance L from these two
slits. For constructive
interference
Path diff : = m
D = m ………..(1)
m2
𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑆2 𝐷
sin 𝜃 = =
P 𝐻𝑦𝑝 𝑆1 𝑆 2
S1 Y 𝐷 𝑆 2=𝑆1 𝑆2 sin 𝜃
c
O
𝐦 𝝀=𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
D It is for constructive
S2 interference, represent
for the wavelength of
light & m stand for the
order of the bright
fringes
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9.2.5 Derive relation for fringe spacing & use the relation in solving word

𝐦 𝝀=𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 problems

The central bright fringes at

is called zero order maximum.

If m = 1, then it’s called

first order maximum
For destructive
interference
Path difference must be
an equal to odd integer
multiple of half of the
wavelength.
D = (m + 1)
d = (m + 1)

For first dark fringes

appear for m = 0 &
second dark for m = 1 01/20/2025
9.2.5 Derive relation for fringe spacing & use the relation in solving word
problems
 Position of the “BRIGHT” & “DARK”
 fringes.
If we find the position between
two bright fringes, we take the
relation of constructive
interference

 Now compare equation (i) and (ii) and we get:

 For dark fringes, we take
the relation of destructive
interference

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9.2.5 Derive relation for fringe spacing & use the relation in solving word
problems
 Position of the “BRIGHT” & “DARK”
 fringes.
In order to determine the distance between two adjacent bright
fringes on the screen, m = m + 1

 For Fringe Spacing

 We can used this equation to
determine the distance between two
bright fringes and also used for dark
fringes as well.
 Using this equation we can also
calculate the wavelength of light, if
the taken the known value of L & d.

 This equation describe the fringe

spacing
 ( the distance between two bright or
dark fringes)
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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.3 INTERFERENCE IN
THIN FILMS

9.3.1 Describe the basic concept of

interference in thin films
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 9.3.1 Describe the basic concept of interference in thin films
 Interference in thin films
Applications of
 Newton’s Rings interference of
light
 Michelson’s Interferometer
Thin films
A such a surface, whose thickness is comparable
with the wavelength of light is called thin films

Interference in thin films

When ordinary source of light is reflected from
such a surface, we observed visible color bands due
to interference effects, this phenomenon is called
interference in thin films
PHYSICAL OPTICS (ASGHAR JARWAR) 01/20/2025
 9.3.1 Describe the basic concept of interference in thin films
 Investigation of interference in thin films

AB
BC & DE

BD

BD = DE Extra path length between two rays of light

BD = DE = Path difference = 2 t
Path difference depends upon (i) thickness (ii) nature of film (iii)
angle of incidence

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.4 NEWTON’S RINGS

9.4.1 Exemplify the formation of

Newton’s rings
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 9.4.1 Exemplify the formation of
Newton’s
 Circular interference rings
fringes, can be produced by
enclosing at thin film of air of variable thickness
between a plano convex lens and a glass plate,
are called
 These are “Newton’s Rings”
bright & dark concentric circles with
dark Centre

 Required apparatus to produced the Newton

 Rings
A convex lens (L) ( used for convert spherical wave-front
into plane wave-front )
 A glass plate (G) ( which kept at in front of the plane wave
 front ) convex lens
A plano
 A glass plate
 Monochromatic light source (S)
 Microscope (M) 01/20/2025
 9.4.1 Exemplify the formation of
Newton’s rings

Monochromatic light
source placed at a
principle focus of convex
lens.

Air film

PHYSICAL OPTICS (ASGHAR JARWAR) 01/20/2025

 9.4.1 Exemplify the formation of
Newton’s
The central spot rings
appears dark.
Because at the point of contact,
between the plano convex lens
and the glass plate, the
thickness of the air film is
almost zero.

PHYSICAL OPTICS (ASGHAR JARWAR) 01/20/2025

 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.5 MICHELSON’S
INTERFEROMETER

9.5.1 Describe the working & uses of

Michelson’s interferometer
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9.5.1 Describe the working & uses of Michelson’s
interferometer
 An interferometer is an optical device used to produce and
observe interference fringes for light. It was built by A.A
 Michelson in 1881.
Working Principle: The amplitude of light beam from an
extended source is divided into two parts of equal intensity
by partially reflected and refracted. These two beam are
sent in two directions at right angles and are brought
together after reflection from the plane mirror to produce
interference fringes

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9.5.1 Describe the working & uses of Michelson’s
interferometer
 If the two parts cover exactly equal distances, they must
interfere constructively. Because, path difference is zero,
Now brightness will be seen.
 If moveable mirror is moved through , the part II will
cover a distance more than part I. Now they will interfere
destructively. So a bright fringe will give way to a dark
fringe.
 If moveable mirror is moved through , the part II will
cover a distance more than part I. Now they will interfere
 constructively.
So each time we will see a bright fringe taking the place of
the previous bright fringe. If moveable mirror is moved
 through .
If number of fringes counted = m
 If distance moved by the
moveable mirror = X
 Then…… X = m

 Hence…… = 2X / m

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9.5.1 Describe the working & uses of Michelson’s
interferometer
 Uses of Michelson’s Interferometer
 It can be used to determine the accurate
measurement of wavelength of light.
 It can be used to find the difference in
wavelength between two neighbouring spectral
 lines
It can be used to find the refractive index &
thickness of a thin transparent material.
 It can be used to measure the distance in
standard meter in terms of wavelength of light.
 It can be used to measure the refractive index of
gases.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.6 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

9.6.1 Define diffraction of light

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9.6.1 Define diffraction of light
 The bending and spreading of light waves around
sharp edges or corner or through a slit is called
diffraction.

 It is depends upon the size of the obstacle.

 Diffraction of light takes place if the size of the
obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of light.
 Two types of the diffraction of light.
1. Fresnel Diffraction
2. Fraunhoffer Diffraction
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9.6.1 Define diffraction of light
 Fresnel Diffraction  Fraunhofer
 Finite distance between Diffraction
source of light & screen  Infinite distance
 It is near field diffraction  Far field diffraction
 No lenses are used to make  Two convex lens are used
light rays parallel or converge  Incident wavefront is
 Incident wavefront is not plane
plane. its spherical  It is a special limiting
 It is a general case of case of diffraction
diffraction

PHYSICAL OPTICS (ASGHAR JARWAR) 01/20/2025

 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.6 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

9.6.2 Describe diffraction of light by

diffraction grating
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 9.6.2 Describe diffraction of light by diffraction
 Diffraction Grating:
grating
An optical instrument based
on a single glass plate upon which a very large
number of lines ruled out on it , all with same
width and spaced equal distance, such an
arrangement is called a “ Diffraction grating” .
 A typical diffraction grating has about 400 to
5000 lines per cm.

 This optical device is used to obtain spectrum

and for analyzing light sources
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 9.6.2 Describe diffraction of light by diffraction
grating grating
 A microscopic view of diffraction

Grating
Element or
Ruled line on Grating
a glass plate Constant
(Distance
between two
consecutive
slits)
It is represent
by d
Open spacing d is equal to the
of diffraction length of grating
grating called divided by the
a slit total number of
lines ruled on it.

d=
PHYSICAL OPTICS (ASGHAR JARWAR) 01/20/2025
9.6.2 Describe diffraction of light by diffraction
grating S

𝜽
5
4
A 3 7 B
𝟐
a 𝝀
b
6
𝝀 4
5
d
3
2
1
P

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 9.6.2 Describe diffraction of light by diffraction
 ab = grating 𝝀
 ab =
 =
 =

 If 𝜽

 If

 If
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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.6 DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

9.6.2 Describe diffraction in a

narrow slit
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9.6.2 Describe diffraction in a narrow slit

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9.6.2 Describe diffraction in a narrow slit 𝝀
𝟐
 ab =
 ab =
𝒅
 =
𝟐
 =d
 =d

 If m

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TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.7 BRAGG’S LAW

9.7.1 Define Bragg’s law

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 9.7.1 Define Bragg’s law
 The Bragg’s law stated that the X-rays reflected from
different parallel atomic planes of a crystal. These reflected
X-rays interfere constructively when the path difference
between two or more then two X-rays are an integral
multiple of the wavelength of X-rays.
 Mathematically it can be
written as:


 d is the separated distance

between two atomic parallel
planes of a crystal
 For example in a rock salt
crystal NaCl, d = 2 – 5
 is the wavelength of X-rays
 range is 0.1 nm to 1 nm
𝒎 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆
 Bragg’s Law is used in “X-ray Crystallography”. In this field, the
structure of solids is investigated by using X-rays
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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.7 BRAGG’S LAW

9.7.2 Describe X-rays diffraction

through a crystal
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9.7.2 Describe X-rays diffraction through a crystal
 X-rays are EMW of extremely small wavelength order.
 X-rays cannot produce interference fringes with ordinary
diffracting objects (e.g. pin hole, fine slits, diffraction
 grating).
A crystal, however, serves as a three dimensional grating
 for
So X-rays
X-rays can produce diffraction by making use of crystal.
 In crystals, atoms are uniformly spread in planes.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.7 BRAGG’S LAW

9.7.4 Derive the equation 2d and use this

equation for solving word problems
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9.7.4 Derive the equation 2d and use this equation for solving word problems

 Consider a 2D three parallel lattice planes of a crystal

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9.7.4 Derive the equation 2d and use this equation for solving word problems

 How far apart are the diffracting planes in a NaCl crystal

for which X-rays of wavelength 1.54 A make a glancing
angle of in the first order?

 A parallel beam of X-rays is diffracted by rock salt crystal.

The 1st order maximum being obtained when glancing angle
of incidence is 6 degree and 5 minutes. The distance
between the atomic planes of the crystal is 2.81 A. Calculate
the wavelength of radiation.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.7 BRAGG’S LAW

9.7.4 Describe the applications of X-rays

diffraction in medical physics
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9.7.4 Describe the applications of X-rays diffraction in medical
physics
 X-rays diffraction has been very useful in determining the
structure of biological important molecules such as
hemoglobin, which is an important constituent of blood,
and double helix structure of (deoxyribonucleic acid) DNA.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.8 POLARIZATION

9.8.1 Describe unpolarized and polarized

light
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PHYSICAL OPTICS (ASGHAR JARWAR)
9.8.1 Describe un-polarized and polarized
light
 Polarization means one-sidedness
 When ordinary light like natural light is passed through a
polarizing filter, it acquires the property of one-sidedness.
i.e. all components of light after passing through the filter
are vibrating in only and only in one direction. This
phenomenon of light is called “polarization”.

Un-polarized
light

 Plane polarized light can be obtained by passing light

through a tourmaline crystal which can be used as a
polarizing filter.

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9.8.1 Describe un-polarized and polarized
light

 This method is known as selective absorption method

& it is a plane polarized light
 when two tourmaline crystals are placed parallel to
each other the light transmitted by the first crystal is
also transmitted by the second.
 when the second crystal is rotated through 90
degrees, no light gets through.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.8 POLARISATION

9.8.2 Explain polarization with reference

to transverse waves.
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9.8.2 Explain polarization with reference to
transverse waves.
 As we know that transverse waves are those waves in which
medium of the particles vibrates about their mean position
perpendicularly to the direction of the propagation of
waves.

 Light waves (EMW) is also transverse waves nature, by

oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

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9.8.2 Explain polarization with reference to
transverse waves.
 The polarization with reference to mechanical transverse
waves nature.

a) The transverse vibrations on a string are not affected,

because the slot is placed parallel to the direction of
b) vibration.
The transverse vibrations do not pass through the slot
because it is held perpendicular to the direction of vibration.

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.8 POLARIZATION

9.8.3 Explain the production of

polarization by a polaroid
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9.8.3 Explain the production of polarization by a
polaroid
 A beam of light from the normal source contains large
 number of waves.
The direction of whose vibrations is completely different.

 The beam of light is said to be polarized; if un polarized

beam passes through a polarizing filter known as polaroid
or polarizer.

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9.8.3 Explain the production of polarization by a
polaroid
 Method of Production of Polarized Light
1. Selective Absorption in certain crystals ( e.g.
tourmaline, calcite)
2. Polarization of light by “reflection” from a transparent
surface
3. Double refraction through a crystal

4. Scattering by small particles

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 TOPICS & SUB-TOPICS
9.8 POLARIZATION

9.8.4 Describe the applications of

polarization in daily life.
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9.8.4 Describe the applications of polarization in
daily
 To life.
reduced the glare
 It is produced due to the
reflection of light.
 Polarization can be used to
reduced the glare, in able to
see objects.

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