(21EC4262) Electronic Measurements &

Instrumentation
References
1. Electronic instrumentation: H.S.Kalsi - TMH, 2nd Edition .
2. Electronic Measurements and Instrumentations by K. Lal
Kishore, Pearson Education - 2010.
3.https://www.tutorialspoint.com/electronic_measuring_instruments/
measuring_instruments.htm

By
Mrs.M.Srilekha,
ECE Dept..
Static Characteristics
The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring
instruments that do not vary with respect to time are called static
characteristics. Sometimes, these quantities or parameters may
vary slowly varies with respect to time. Following are the list
of static characteristics.
They are
Accuracy
Precision
Resolution
Errors
1.Accuracy
The algebraic difference between the indicated value of an
instrument, Ai and the true value, At is known as accuracy.
Mathematically, it can be represented as
Accuracy=Ai−At
The term, accuracy signifies how much the indicated value of an
instrument, Ai is closer to the true value, At.

2.Precision
If an instrument indicates the same value repeatedly when it is used to
measure the same quantity under same circumstances for any number
of times, then we can say that the instrument has high precision.
Relation between Accuracy and precision.
a) precise but not accurate.
b) Accurate but not precise.
c) Precise and Accurate.
d)not accurate and not precise.
3.Resolution:
If the output of an instrument will change only when there is a specific
increment of the input, then that increment of the input is called Resolution.
That means, the instrument is capable of measuring the input effectively,
when there is a resolution of the input.
4.Sensitivity:
The sensitivity is always expressed by the manufacturers as the ratio of the
magnitude of quantity being measured to the magnitude of the response.
Actually, this definition is the reciprocal of the sensitivity is called inverse
sensitivity or deflection factor. But manufacturers call this inverse sensitivity
as sensitivity.
Deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity = 1/S
The units of the sensitivity are millimeter per micro-ampere, millimeter per
ohm, counts per volt.
Drift : Gradual shift in the measured value ,over an extended
period, when there is no change in input.

Threshold: The minimum value of input for which the device

just starts to respond.

Range/Span: The minimum and maximum value of

quantity so that the device is capable of measuring.
Types of Measurement Errors
The errors, which occur during measurement are known as measurement
errors.
• Gross Errors
• Random Errors
• Systematic Errors
Gross Errors
The errors, which occur due to the lack of experience of the observer while
taking the measurement values are known as gross errors. The values of
gross errors will vary from observer to observer. Sometimes, the gross
errors may also occur due to improper selection of the instrument. We can
minimize the gross errors by following these two steps.
Systematic Errors
If the instrument produces an error, which is of a constant uniform deviation
during its operation is known as systematic error. The systematic errors
occur due to the characteristics of the materials used in the instrument.
Types of Systematic Errors
The systematic errors can be classified into the following three types.
Instrumental Errors − This type of errors occur due to shortcomings of
instruments and loading effects.
Environmental Errors − This type of errors occur due to the changes in
environment such as change in temperature, pressure & etc.
observational Errors − This type of errors occur due to observer while
taking the meter readings. Parallax errors belong to this type of errors.
Random errors/Gaussian errors
The errors, which occur due to unknown sources during
measurement time are known as random errors. Hence, it is not
possible to eliminate or minimize these errors. But, if we want to get
the more accurate measurement values without any random error,
then it is possible by following these two steps.

Step1 − Take more number of readings by different observers.

Step2 − Do statistical analysis on the readings obtained in Step1.

like calculating Mean ,Median,Standard deviation etc by using

formulae and plot the graph of Guassian distribution for best
estimation of the error.
Root sum square formula(RSS formula)
A simple mathematical formula used
to estimate probable error by taking
only one set of readings.
if N=f(u1,u2,u3......un) then the RSS
formula is given by

Erss=√(∆u1.∂f/∂u1) +(∆u2.∂f/∂u2)2+...
2
Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities
or parameters that vary very quickly with respect to time are called dynamic
characteristics. Following are the list of dynamic characteristics.
Repeatability
Reproducibility
Fidelity
Lag
• Repeatability:
Defined as the variation of scale reading when the input is randomly
applied(with time gaps).

• Reproducibility:
This is the scale reading over a given period of time when the input is
constantly applied.
Ex: 10v voltmeter must be 10v only for continuous connection of
instrument.
3.Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error is known
as Fidelity(faithful production of quality output).

4.Lag
The amount of delay present in the response of an instrument
whenever there is a change in the quantity to be measured is called
measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.
Measuring Instruments:
1.Voltmeter(D.C &A.C)
2.Ammeter(D.C &A.C)
3.Ohmmeter
4.Multimeter
1. D.C Voltmeter
 used to measure the DC voltage across any two points of electric
circuit.
 If we place a resistor in series with the Permanent Magnet Moving
Coil (PMMC) galvanometer, then the entire combination together
acts as DC voltmeter.
 The series resistance, which is used in DC voltmeter is also called
multiplier. It basically limits the amount of current that flows through
galvanometer in order to prevent the meter current from exceeding the full
scale deflection value.
Apply KVL around the loop of above circuit.
V−ImRs−ImRm=0
⇒V−ImRm=ImRs
⇒Rs=V−ImRm
Im
⇒** Rs=(V/ Im)−Rm
where
Rs is the series multiplier resistance
V is the full range DC voltage that is to be measured
Im is the full scale deflection current
Rm is the internal resistance of galvanometer.
here,
m=V/Vm & m=(Rs/Rm) +1 ; m=multiplying factor.
We can find the value of series multiplier resistance by using Equation,
Rs=Rm(m−1)
Multirange voltmeters:
The range of the basic d.c. voltmeter can be extended by using number of
multipliers clnd a selector switch. Such a meter is called multirange
voltmeter.
m1=V1/Vm, m2=V2/Vm............ &
Rs1=Rm(m1−1) , Rs2=Rm(m2−1)................
AC voltmeter
used to measure the AC voltage across any two points of electric circuit
If the AC voltmeter consists of rectifier, then it is said to be rectifier based AC voltmeter.
Step1 − Convert the AC voltage signal into a DC voltage signal by using a rectifier.
Step2 − Measure the DC or average value of the rectifier’s output signal.
EX:

A.C input voltage----------> HWR-----> D.C voltmeter----->meter reading output

The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Vrms=Vm/√2
⇒Vm=√2 Vrms
⇒Vm=1.414Vrms
Where,
Vm is the maximum value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.

The DC or average value of the Half wave rectifier’s output signal is

Vdc=Vm/π, or Vdc=1.414Vrms / π
DC Ammeters
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If this electric charge flows only in one
direction, then the resultant current is called Direct Current (DC). The instrument,
which is used to measure the Direct Current called DC ammeter.
If we place a resistor in parallel or shunt with the Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
(PMMC)galvanometer, then acts as DC ammeter.
Ish Rsh=Im Rm
⇒Rsh=ImRm / Ish
The KCL equation at node 1 is
−I+Ish+Im=0
⇒Ish=I−Im
Substitute the value of Ish
Rsh=ImRm / I−Im
Where,
Rsh is the shunt resistance
Rm is the internal resistance of galvanometer
I is the total Direct Current that is to be measured
Im is the full scale deflection current
m=I / Im; m is multiplying factor.
Rsh=Rm/(m−1). we can find shunt resistance value by using this equation.
Multi Range DC Ammeter

m1=I1/Im, m2=I2/Im...........&
Rsh1=Rm/(m1−1).Rsh2=Rm/(m2−1).............
AC Ammeter
 Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If the direction of this electric
charge changes regularly, then the resultant current is called Alternating
Current (AC).
 The instrument, which is used to measure the Alternating Current that
flows through any branch of electric circuit is called AC ammeter.
OHMMeters
 The instrument, which is used to measure the value of resistance between
any two points in an electric circuit is called ohmmeter.
 Series Ohmmeter.
 Shunt Ohmmeter.
 If the resistor’s value is unknown and has to be measured by placing it in
series with the ohmmeter, then that ohmmeter is called series
ohmmeter.
 If the resistor’s value is unknown and to be measured by placing it in
parallel (shunt) with the ohmmeter, then that ohmmeter is called shunt
ohmmeter.
 series ohmmeter is useful for measuring high values of resistances.
 Shunt ohmmeter is useful for measuring low values of resistances.
 So, we can use either series ohmmeter or shunt ohmmeter based on the
values of resistances that are to be measured i.e., high or low.
MultiMeter
 We have separate measuring instruments for measuring voltage, current
and resistance.
Suppose, if a single measuring instrument can be used to measure the
quantities such as voltage, current & resistance one at a time, then it is said
to be multimeter.
since it can measure multiple electrical quantities one at a time.
Multimeter is an instrument used to measure DC & AC voltages, DC &
AC currents and resistances of several ranges. It is also called Electronic
Multimeter or Voltage Ohm Meter (VOM).
DC voltage measurement AC voltage measurement
Resistance measurement using Multimeter
D'Arsonval movement
The D'Arsonval movement is a current sensing mechanism which is
used in DC Ammeter, ohm meter and Voltmeter.
When an electric current is passed through a coil placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a force.
This force causes a torque in the coil that is fixed to a spindle.
The spindle can rotate in fixed bearings.
True RMS responding Voltmeter
• This voltmeter measures RMS values of AC voltages.
The above circuit consists of an AC amplifier, two thermocouples, DC
amplifier and PMMC galvanometer.
AC amplifier amplifies the AC voltage signal. Two thermocouples that are
used in above circuit are a measuring thermocouple and a balancing
thermocouple.
Measuring thermocouple produces an output voltage, which is proportional
to RMS value of the AC voltage signal.
Thermocouple converts a square of input quantity into a normal quantity.
The effect of non-linear behavior of a thermocouple can be neglected by
balancing thermocouple.
The two thermocouples form a bride at the input of DC amplifier. As a result,
the meter always responds to the true RMS value of AC voltage signal.