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Metal Cutting Theory

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
24 views46 pages

Metal Cutting Theory

Uploaded by

GAMING HACKS
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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By

Dr. SIRSENDU MAHATA


ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

Department of Mechanical Engineering


Kalyani Govt. Engineering College
Kalyani
E-mail: [email protected]
 Overview of Machining Technology
 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal
Machining
 Force Relationships
 Power and Energy Relationships in
Machining
 Cutting Temperature
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from
a starting workpart so the remaining part
has the desired shape
 Categories:
◦ Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
◦ Abrasive processes – material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
◦ Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
 Plastically deform a material using a
hard tool in order to obtain desired
physical shape and properties
 Very complex phenomena
 Essential for high precision; high
performance products
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
 As chip is removed, a new surface is
exposed

Figure 1 ‑ (a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process, (b)


tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a)
 Variety of work materials can be
machined
◦ Most frequently applied to metals
 Variety of part shapes and special
geometry features possible, such as:
◦ Screw threads
◦ Accurate round holes
◦ Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and
surface finish
 Wastage of material
 Chips
generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
 Secondary manufacturing process
performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and
bar drawing
 Other processes create the general shape of
the starting workpart
 Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
 Most important machining operations:
 Turning
 Drilling
 Milling
 Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planing
 Broaching
 Sawing
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape

Figure 2 (a) turning


Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) that has two cutting edges

Figure 2‑ The three most


common types of machining
process: (b) drilling
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
slowly relative to work to generate plane or
straight surface
 Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling

Figure 2‑ (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling


1. Single-Point Tools
◦ One cutting edge
◦ Turning uses single point tools
◦ Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
◦ More than one cutting edge
◦ Motion relative to work usually achieved
by rotating
◦ Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools.
Figure 3 ‑ (a) A single‑point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges
 Thethree dimensions of a machining
process:
◦ Cutting speed v – primary motion
◦ Feed f – secondary motion
◦ Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below
original work surface
 Forcertain operations, material removal
rate can be found as
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of
cut
Cutting Conditions for Turning

Figure 4 ‑ Cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut for a turning


operation
In production, several roughing cuts are
usually taken on the part, followed by
one or two finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of
material from the starting workpart
◦ Creates shape close to desired geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cutting
◦ High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing - completes part geometry
◦ Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and
finish
◦ Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
A power‑driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
 Functions in machining:
 Holds workpart
 Positions tool relative to work
 Provides power at speed, feed, and depth
that have been set
 The term is also applied to machines
that perform metal forming operations
Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Figure 5 ‑ Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three‑dimensional process


to
r
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the
chip prior to chip formation; and tc = chip thickness
after separation
 Chip thickness after cut is always greater than
before, so chip ratio is always less than 1.0
 Chip Reduction Coefficient (CRC) is the
reciprocal of Chip Thickness Ratio.
 Basedon the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle 
can be determined as:
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin 
where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle
Piispanen’s Card Model
Figure 6‑ Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation
depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each
other, (b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain,
and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:
 = tan( - ) + cot 
where  = shear strain,  = shear plane
angle, and  = rake angle of cutting tool
Figure 7 ‑ More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone
rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone
resulting from tool‑chip friction
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge
(BUE)
4. Serrated chip
Segmented Chip
 Brittle work materials
(e.g., cast irons)
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth
of cut
 High tool‑chip friction

Figure 8 ‑ Four types of chip


formation in metal cutting:
(a) segmented
Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials
(e.g., low carbon steel)
 High cutting speeds
 Smallfeeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting edge on
the tool
 Low tool‑chip friction

Figure 8‑ Four types of chip


formation in metal cutting:
(b) continuous
Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Moderate cutting speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere
to rake face
 BUE formation is cyclical; it
forms, then breaks off

Figure 8‑ Four types of chip


formation in metal cutting: (c)
continuous with built‑up edge
Serrated Chip
 Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth appearance
 Cyclical chip
formation of
alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
 Most closely
associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds

Figure 8 ‑ Four types of chip


formation in metal cutting:
(d) serrated
Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

 Shear force F and Normal force to shear F


s n

Figure 9 ‑
Forces in metal
cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip
in orthogonal
cutting
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant
R'
 Forces acting on the chip must be in
balance:
 R' must be equal in magnitude to R
 R’ must be opposite in direction to R
 R’ must be collinear with R
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

 tan 
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane

t ow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 Forces F, N, F , and F cannot be directly
s n
measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
◦ Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Figure9 ‑ Forces in
metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
 Equations can be derived to relate the
forces that cannot be measured to the
forces that can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear
stress and coefficient of friction can be
determined
 Ofall the possible angles at which shear
deformation could occur, the work material
will select a shear plane angle  which
minimizes energy, given by
 
 45  
2 2
 Derived by Eugene Merchant
 Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity
extends to 3-D machining
 
 45  
2 2
 To increase shear plane angle
◦ Increase the rake angle
◦ Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear
plane which means lower shear force
 Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature,
all of which mean easier machining

Figure 10 ‑ Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a resulting


lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding larger
shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends
to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting
force; and v = cutting speed
In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed
as horsepower (dividing ft‑lb/min by 33,000)

Fc v
HPc 
33,000

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp


Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg
or HPg is given by
Pc
Pg  HPc
E HPg 
or E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
• Typical E for machine tools =  90%
 Useful to convert power into power per unit
volume rate of metal cut
 Called the unit power, P or unit horsepower, HP
u u

Pc HPc
Puor HPu 
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fc v Fc
U Pu   
MRR vto w to w

Units for specific energy are typically N‑m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in‑lb/in3)


 Approximately 98% of the energy in
machining is converted into heat
 This can cause temperatures to be very
high at the tool‑chip
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is
retained as elastic energy in the chip
 Several analytical methods to calculate cutting
temperature
 Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional analysis
using experimental data for various work materials
0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T   
C  K 

where T = temperature rise at tool‑chip interface; U = specific energy; v


= cutting speed; to = chip thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific
heat of work material; K = thermal diffusivity of the work material
 Experimental methods can be used to
measure temperatures in machining
 Most frequently used technique is the
tool‑chip thermocouple
 Using this method, K. Trigger
determined the speed‑temperature
relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool‑chip interface
temperature

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