Lecture Presentation

Chapter 9

Electrons in
Atoms and the
Periodic Table

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom
• On May 6, 1937, while landing
in New Jersey on its first
transatlantic crossing, the
Hindenburg burst into flames,
destroying the airship and
killing 36 of the 97 passengers.
• Apparently, as the Hindenburg
was landing, leaking hydrogen
gas ignited, resulting in an
explosion that destroyed the
airship.
The Hindenburg was filled with
• The skin of the Hindenburg, hydrogen, a reactive and
which was constructed of a flammable gas. Question: What
flammable material, may have makes hydrogen reactive?
also been partially to blame for
its demise.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom
• Modern blimps are filled
with helium, an inert gas.
• The nucleus of the
helium atom has two
protons, so the neutral
helium atom has two
electrons—a highly
stable configuration.
• In this chapter, we learn
about models that
explain the inertness of
helium and the reactivity
of other elements.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom
• What is it about helium atoms that makes
helium gas inert?
• By contrast, why is hydrogen so reactive?
• Elemental hydrogen exists as a diatomic
element.
• Hydrogen atoms are so reactive that they
react with each other to form hydrogen
molecules.
• What is it about hydrogen atoms that make
them so reactive?
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Models Explain the Inertness and Reactivity
of the Elements
• Are other elements as reactive as hydrogen?
• The reactivity exhibited by hydrogen is also
seen in other Group 1 elements, such as lithium
and sodium.
• The inertness of helium is seen in neon, argon, and the
other noble gases.
• Mendeleev’s periodic law sums up these observations:
When the elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number, certain sets of properties recur periodically.
• Models and theories help explain the observed behaviors
of groups of elements such as the Group 1 metals and
noble gases.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table
• We examine two important models—the
Bohr model and the quantum-mechanical
model—that propose explanations for the
inertness of helium, the reactivity of
hydrogen, and the periodic law.
• These models explain how electrons exist in
atoms and how those electrons affect the
chemical and physical properties of
elements.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Niels Bohr and Erwin Schrödinger
Niels Bohr (left) and Erwin Schrödinger (right), along with
Albert Einstein, played a role in the development of quantum
mechanics, yet they were bewildered by their own theory of
wave-particle duality for the electron.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation

• The interaction of light with atoms helped to

shape scientists’ models of the atom.

• Light is a form of electromagnetic

radiation.
• Light is a type of energy that travels through
space at a constant speed of 3.0 × 108 m/s
(186,000 mi/s).
• Light has properties of both waves and
particles.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation

When a water surface is disturbed, waves are created

that radiate outward from the site. The wave carries
energy as it moves through the water.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation

• Wavelength: The wavelength of light,

λ (lambda, pronounced “lam-duh”), is
defined as the distance between adjacent
wave crests.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Light: Color of Light
• White light, as produced by the sun or by a lightbulb,
contains a spectrum of wavelengths and therefore a
spectrum of color.
• We see these colors—red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet—in a rainbow or when white light is
passed through a prism.
• Red light, with a wavelength of 750 nm (nanometers),
has the longest wavelength of visible light.
• Violet light, with a wavelength of 400 nm, has the
shortest wavelength of visible light
(1 nm = 1 × 10–9 m).
• The presence of color in white light is responsible for
the colors we see in our everyday vision.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Light: Color of Light

Components of
white light
ROYGBIV
• Light is separated
into its constituent
colors—red,
orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo,
and violet—when it
is passed through
a prism.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Light: Color in Objects

• A red shirt appears red because it reflects

red light; the shirt absorbs all of the other
colors of light except the red light. Our eyes
see only the reflected light, making the shirt
appear red.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation
• Frequency: The frequency of light, ν
(nu, pronounced “noo”), is defined as the
number of cycles or crests that pass through
a stationary point in one second.
• Wavelength and frequency are inversely
related—the shorter the wavelength, the
higher the frequency.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation

• Wavelength ( ) – distance between two peaks or

troughs in a wave.
• Frequency (  ) – number of waves (cycles) per
second that pass a given point in space (1/s or
Hertz, Hz)
• Speed (c) – speed of light ( = 2.9979×10 8 m/s)
• Planck’s Constant ()= 6.626×10-34 J.s.

c = 
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ( 𝐸 )=h ν=h𝑐 / λ

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Example
• The frequency of light with a wavelength of
258 nm is
• a) 8.61 x 10–16 s–1
• b) 7.70 x 10–19 s–1
• c) 1.16 x 1015 s–1
• d) 77.3 s–1
• e) none of these

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Example
• Calculate the energy of light with a
wavelength of 258 nm.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Electromagnetic Radiation (Photons—
Particles of Light)
• Light can be viewed as a stream of particles.
• A particle of light is called a photon.
• We can think of a photon as a single packet of light
energy.
• The amount of energy carried in the packet depends
on the wavelength of the light—the shorter the
wavelength, the greater the energy.
• Light waves carry more energy if their crests are
closer together (higher frequency and shorter
wavelength).
• Violet light (shorter wavelength) carries more energy
per photon than red light (longer wavelength).
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation

To summarize:
• Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy
that travels through space at a constant speed of
3.0 × 108 m/s (186,000 mi/s) and can exhibit
wavelike or particle-like properties.
• The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation
determines the amount of energy carried by one
of its photons. The shorter the wavelength, the
greater the energy of each photon.
• The frequency and energy of electromagnetic
radiation are inversely related to its wavelength.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The entire electromagnetic spectrum, with short-
wavelength, high-frequency radiation on the right
and long-wavelength, low-frequency radiation on
the left, is shown below. Visible light is the small
sliver in the middle.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The shortest wavelength and most
energetic photons are those of
gamma rays.
• Gamma rays are produced by the sun,
by stars, and by certain unstable atomic
nuclei on Earth.
• Excessive human exposure to gamma
rays is dangerous because the high
energy of gamma-ray photons can
damage biological molecules.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Next on the electromagnetic spectrum, with longer
wavelengths and lower energy than gamma rays,
are X-rays, familiar to us from their medical use.
• X-rays pass through many substances that block
visible light and are used to image internal bones
and organs.
• Like gamma-ray photons, X-ray photons carry
enough energy to damage biological molecules.
• While several yearly exposures to X-rays are
relatively harmless, excessive exposure to X-rays
increases cancer risk.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Between X-rays and visible light in the
electromagnetic spectrum is ultraviolet or UV
light, familiar to us as the component of
sunlight that produces a sunburn or suntan.
• While not as energetic as gamma-ray or X-ray
photons, ultraviolet photons still carry enough
energy to damage biological molecules.
• Excessive exposure to ultraviolet light
increases the risk of skin cancer and cataracts
and causes premature wrinkling of the skin.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Next on the spectrum is visible light,
ranging from violet (shorter wavelength,
higher energy) to red (longer wavelength,
lower energy).
• Photons of visible light do not damage
biological molecules.
• Photons of visible light cause molecules in
our eyes to rearrange, which sends a signal
to our brains that results in vision.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Infrared light is next, with even longer wavelengths
than visible light.
• The heat you feel when you place your hand near a
hot object is infrared light.
• All warm objects, including human bodies, emit
infrared light.
• While infrared light is invisible to our eyes, infrared
sensors can detect it and are often used in night-vision
technology to “see” in the dark.
• In the infrared region of the spectrum, warm objects—
such as human bodies—glow, much as a lightbulb
glows in the visible region of the spectrum.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Visible Light and Infrared Radiation Images
In the infrared photograph, the warmest areas appear as red
and the coolest as dark blue. (Note that the photo confirms
the familiar idea that healthy dogs have cold noses.)
(Source: Sierra Pacific Innovations. All rights reserved. SPI
CORP, www.x20.org)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Beyond infrared light, at longer wavelengths still, are
microwaves, used for radar and in microwave ovens.
• Microwave light has longer wavelengths—and
therefore lower energy per photon—than visible or
infrared light.
• Microwave light is efficiently absorbed by water and
can heat substances that contain water.
• Substances that contain water, such as food, are
warmed by the radiation of a microwave oven, but
substances that do not contain water, such as a plate,
are not.
• Some types of dishes contain substances that absorb
microwave radiation, but most do not.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The longest wavelengths of light are radio
waves, which are used to transmit the
signals used by AM and FM radio, cellular
telephones, television, and other forms of
communication.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 EXAMPLE 9.1 Wavelength, Energy, and
Frequency
• Arrange the three types of electromagnetic
radiation—visible light, X-rays, and
microwaves—in order of increasing:
(a) Wavelength
(b) Frequency
(c) Energy per photon

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Each Element Has Its Own Atomic Emission
Spectrum of Light

• Neon atoms inside

a glass tube absorb
electrical energy
and then reemit the
energy as red light.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Each Element Has Its Own Atomic Emission
Spectrum of Light

• Light emitted from a

mercury lamp (left)
appears blue, and
light emitted from a
hydrogen lamp
(right) appears pink.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Emission Spectra of the Elements Are Not
Continuous
• A white-light spectrum is continuous, with some
radiation emitted at every wavelength.
The emission spectrum of an individual element
includes only certain specific wavelengths.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Light Emitted by Hydrogen Contains
Distinct Wavelengths That Are Specific to
Hydrogen

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Niels Bohr Developed a Simple Model to
Explain These Results

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Energy Is Quantized
The energy of each Bohr
orbit, specified by a
quantum number n = 1, 2,
3 is fixed, or quantized.
Bohr orbits are like steps of
a ladder, each at a specific
distance from the nucleus
and each at a specific
energy.
It is impossible for an
electron to exist between
orbits in the Bohr model.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Excitation and Emission

• When a hydrogen
atom absorbs
energy, an electron
is excited to a
higher-energy orbit.
The electron then
relaxes back to a
lower-energy orbit,
emitting a photon
of light.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hydrogen Emission Lines
• Since the amount of energy in a photon is directly
related to its wavelength, the photon has a specific
wavelength.
• The light emitted by excited atoms consists of specific
lines at specific wavelengths, each corresponding to a
specific transition between two orbits.
• For example, the line at 486 nm in the hydrogen
emission spectrum corresponds to an electron relaxing
from the n = 4 orbit to the n = 2 orbit.
• In the same way, the line at 657 nm (longer wavelength
and lower energy) corresponds to an electron relaxing
from the n = 3 orbit to the n = 2 orbit.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Hydrogen Emission Lines

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits

• The great success of the Bohr model of the

atom was that it predicted the lines of the
hydrogen emission spectrum.
• However, it failed to predict the emission
spectra of other elements that contained
more than one electron.
• For this and other reasons, the Bohr model
was replaced with a more sophisticated
model called the quantum-mechanical or
wave-mechanical model.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms
with Orbitals
• The quantum-mechanical model of the atom
replaced the Bohr model in the early twentieth
century. In the quantum-mechanical model,
Bohr orbits are replaced with quantum-mechanical
orbitals.
• Orbitals are different from orbits in that they
represent probability maps that show a statistical
distribution of where the electron is likely to
be found.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms
with Orbitals
• Quantum mechanics revolutionized physics and
chemistry because, in the quantum-mechanical
model, electrons do not behave like particles flying
through space.
• We cannot, in general, describe their exact paths.
• An orbital is a probability map that shows where the
electron is likely to be found when the atom is
probed; it does not represent the exact path that an
electron takes as it travels through space.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Baseball Paths and Electron
Probability Maps

• To describe the
behavior of a
“pitched” electron,
you would have to
construct a
probability map of
where it would
cross home plate.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Principal Quantum Numbers for Orbitals
• In the quantum-mechanical model, a
number and a letter specify an orbital (or
orbitals).
• The lowest-energy orbital in the quantum-
mechanical model is called the 1s orbital.
• It is specified by the number 1 and the
letter s.
• The number is called the principal
quantum number (n) and specifies the
principal shell of the orbital.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Ground States and Excited States
• The single electron of an undisturbed hydrogen
atom at room temperature is in the 1s orbital.
• This is called the ground state, or lowest energy
state, of the hydrogen atom.
• The absorption of energy by a hydrogen atom can
cause the electron to jump (or make a transition)
from the 1s orbital to a higher-energy orbital.
When the electron is in a higher-energy orbital, the
hydrogen atom is said to be in an excited state.
• All the atoms of each element have one ground
state and many excited states.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Energy Increases with Principal Quantum
Number
• The higher the principal
quantum number, the higher
the energy of the orbital.
• The possible principal
quantum numbers are
n = 1, 2, 3 … with energy
increasing as n increases.
• Since the 1s orbital has the
lowest possible principal
quantum number, it is in the
lowest-energy shell and has
the lowest possible energy.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Shapes of Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals
• The letter indicates the subshell of the
orbital and specifies its shape.
• The possible letters are s, p, d, and f, each
with a different shape.
• Orbitals within the s subshell have a
spherical shape.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Representations of Orbitals
• Orbitals are sometimes represented by dots,
where the dot density is proportional to the
probability of finding the electron.
• The dot density for the 1s orbital is greatest
near the nucleus and decreases farther
away from the nucleus.
• The electron is more likely to be found close
to the nucleus than far away from it.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Representations of Orbitals
• Orbitals can be represented as geometric
shapes that encompass most of the volume
where the electron is likely to be found.
• The 1s orbital can be represented as a sphere
that encompasses the volume within which the
electron is found 90% of the time.
• If we superimpose the dot representation of the
1s orbital on the shape representation, we can
see that most of the dots are within the sphere,
meaning that the electron is most likely to be
found within the sphere when it is in the 1s
orbital.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Representations of Orbitals
Dot density and shape representations of the 1s orbital: The dot
density is proportional to the probability of finding the electron. The
greater dot density near the middle represents a higher probability
of finding the electron near the nucleus.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Number of Subshells in a Given
Principal Shell Is Equal to the Value of n

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The 2s Orbital Is Similar to the 1s Orbital,
but Larger in Size

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The 2p Orbitals: This figure Shows Both the
Dot Representation (Left) and Shape
Representation (Right) for Each p Orbital

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Orbitals When n = 3
• The next principal shell, n = 3, contains
three subshells specified by s, p, and d.
• The s and p subshells contain the 3s and
3p orbitals, similar in shape to the 2s and
2p orbitals, but slightly larger and higher
in energy.
• The d subshell contains five d orbitals.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The 3d Orbitals: This Figure Shows Both the
Dot Representation (Left) and Shape
Representation (Right) for Each d Orbital

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Electron Configurations: How Electrons
Occupy Orbitals
• An electron configuration shows the occupation of
orbitals by electrons for a particular atom.
• The electron configuration for a ground-state hydrogen
atom is as follows:

• The electron configuration tells us that hydrogen’s single

electron is in the 1s orbital.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Electron Configurations: Orbital Diagrams
• Another way to represent this information is with an
orbital diagram, which gives similar information but
shows the electrons as arrows in a box representing
the orbital.
• The orbital diagram for a ground-state hydrogen atom
is as follows:

• The box represents the 1s orbital, and the arrow within

the box represents the electron in the 1s orbital.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Electron Spin
• In orbital diagrams, the direction of the arrow
(pointing up or pointing down) represents
electron spin, a fundamental property of
electrons.
• The Pauli exclusion principle states that
orbitals may hold no more than two electrons
with opposing spins.
• We symbolize this as two arrows pointing in
opposite directions.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Energy Ordering of Orbitals for Multi-
Electron Atoms

• In multi-electron atoms, the subshells within

a principal shell do not have the same
energy because of electron–electron
interactions.
• Different subshells within the same principal
shell have different energies.
• The 4s subshell is lower in energy than the
3d subshell, even though its principal
quantum number is higher.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Energy Ordering of Orbitals for Multi-
Electron Atoms

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Writing Ground-State Electron
Configurations
• A helium atom has two electrons.
• The electron configuration and orbital diagram for helium are as
follows:

• A lithium atom has three electrons.

• The electron configuration and orbital diagram for lithium are as
follows:

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Writing Ground-State Electron
Configurations

For carbon, which has six electrons, the electron

configuration and orbital diagram are as follows:

• The 2p electrons occupy the p orbitals (of equal

energy) singly, rather than pairing in one orbital.
This is the result of Hund’s rule:
• When filling orbitals of equal energy, electrons fill
them singly first, with parallel spins.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Orbitals Fill in the Following Order:
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Electron Configuration of Neon
Represents the Complete Filling of the n = 2
Principal Shell

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Noble Gas Core Notation
• When writing electron configurations for
elements beyond neon—or beyond any
other noble gas—the electron configuration
of the previous noble gas can be
abbreviated by the symbol for the noble gas
in brackets.
• For sodium (11)
Na: 1s22s22p63s1
Na: [Ne]3s1

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Electron Configurations and the
Periodic Table

• Valence electrons are the electrons in

the outermost principal shell (the principal
shell with the highest principal quantum
number, n).
• These electrons are important because they
are involved in chemical bonding.
• Electrons that are not in the outermost
principal shell are called core electrons.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Valence Electrons and Core Electrons

Silicon has 4 valence electrons (those in the

n = 3 principal shell) and 10 core electrons.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Valence Electrons and Core Electrons

Selenium has 6 valence electrons (those in the

n = 4 principal shell).

All other electrons, including those in the 3d

orbitals, are core electrons.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Electron Configurations and the Periodic
Table
• The elements within a column of the periodic table all have the
same number of valence electrons and similar outer electron
configurations.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 A Pattern Exists for the Entire Periodic
Table

• The first two columns on the left side of the

periodic table are the s block.
• The six columns on the right side of the
periodic table are the p block.
• The transition metals are the d block.
• The lanthanides and actinides (also called
the inner transition metals) are the f block.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 A Pattern Exists for the Entire Periodic
Table

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Periodic Trends in Electron Configurations
of the Main Group Elements
• The number of valence electrons for any main-group
element is equal to the group number of its column.
(Helium is an exception.)
• Chlorine has 7 valence electrons because it is in the
column with group number 7A.
• The row number in the periodic table is equal to the
number of the highest principal shell (n value).
• Chlorine is in row 3; its highest principal shell is the
n = 3 shell.
• Remember that main-group elements are those in the
two far left columns (1A, 2A) and the six far right columns
(3A–8A) of the periodic table.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Periodic Trends in Electron Configurations
of the Transition Series Elements
• The transition metals have electron configurations with
trends that differ somewhat from main-group elements.
• The principal quantum number of the d orbital being
filled across each row in the transition series is equal
to the row number minus one.
• For the first transition series, the outer configuration is
4s23dx (x = number of d electrons).
• Two exceptions: Cr is 4s13d5 and Cu is 4s13d10.
• These exceptions occur because a half-filled d
subshell and a completely filled d subshell are
particularly stable.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Periodic Trends in Electron Configurations
of the Transition Series Elements

• The number of outershell electrons in a

transition series does not change as you
move across a period.
• The transition series represents the filling of
core orbitals and the number of outershell
electrons is mostly constant—either 2 or 1.
(2e–) for 4s23dx
(1e–) for 4s13d5 or 4s13d10

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Write Electron Configuration Based on
Position in the Periodic Table: Phosphorus

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-
Mechanical Model

Some observations:
• Sodium tends to form Na+ ions, and fluorine
tends to form F− ions.
• Some elements are metals, and others are
nonmetals.
• The noble gases are chemically inert, and
the alkali metals are chemically reactive.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-
Mechanical Model
• The chemical properties of elements are
largely determined by the number of valence
electrons they contain.
• Their properties vary in a periodic fashion
because the number of valence electrons is
periodic.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Noble Gases
• Calculations show that atoms with 8
valence electrons (or 2 for helium) are
predicted to be particularly low in
energy and therefore stable.
• The noble gases are chemically
stable, and thus relatively inert or
nonreactive as accounted for by the
quantum model.
• Elements with electron configurations
close to the noble gases are the most
reactive because they can attain noble
gas electron configurations by losing
or gaining a small number of
electrons.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 The Alkali Metals
• Alkali metals (Group 1) are
among the most reactive
metals since their outer
electron configuration (ns1) is
1 electron beyond a noble gas
configuration.
• If they can react to lose the
electron, they attain a noble
gas configuration.
• This explains why the Group 1
metals tend to form 1+
cations.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Alkaline Earth Metals
• The alkaline earth metals
(Group 2) all have
electron configurations ns2
and are therefore 2
electrons beyond a noble
gas configuration.
• In their reactions, they
tend to lose 2 electrons,
forming 2+ ions and
attaining a noble gas
configuration.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The Halogens
• The halogens (Group 7)
all have ns2np5 electron
configurations and are
therefore 1 electron short
of a noble gas
configuration.
• In their reactions,
halogens tend to gain 1
electron, forming 1− ions
and attaining a noble gas
configuration.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Elements That Form Predictable Ions

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size Has Two
Factors
• #1: As you move to the right across a period in the
periodic table, atomic size decreases.
• The atomic size of an atom is determined by
the distance between the outermost electrons and the
nucleus.
• The size of an orbital depends on the principal
quantum number.
• With each step across a period, the number of protons
in the nucleus is increasing.
• This increase in the number of protons results in a
greater pull on the electrons from the nucleus, causing
atomic size to decrease.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size Has Two
Factors

• #2: As you move down a column in the

periodic table, atomic size increases.
• As you move down a column in the periodic
table, the highest principal quantum number,
n, increases.
• Since the size of an orbital increases with
increasing principal quantum number, the
electrons that occupy the outermost orbitals
are farther from the nucleus as you move
down a column.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Periodic Properties: Atomic Size

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Periodic Properties: Ionization Energy
• Ionization energy is the energy required to
remove one electron from the valence shell
of an atom in a gaseous state.
• Ionization energy increases as you move to
the right across a period and decreases as
you move down a column in the periodic
table.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Periodic Properties: Ionization Energy

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Periodic Properties: Metallic Character
• Metals tend to lose electrons in their
chemical reactions, while nonmetals tend to
gain electrons.
• As you move across a period in the periodic
table, ionization energy increases, which
means that electrons are less likely to be
lost in chemical reactions.
• Metallic character decreases as you move
to the right across a period and increases
as you move down a column in the
periodic table.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Periodic Properties: Metallic Character

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.