Human

Development
PSY2001
Hannah Brazeau
 1. Human Development
2. Physical Development
• Fetal Development
• Child Development
• Adolescent Development
3. Cognitive Development
Agenda • Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development
4. Social and Emotional Development
• Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
• Attachment Theory
• Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
5. Other Forms of Development
• Psychosexual Theory of Development

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 Human Development
The pattern of change (growth and decline) in human capabilities.
• Begins at conception and continues throughout the life span.

Development is a complex interaction between biological

maturation and environmental experience.

Development involves:
• Physical development
• Cognitive development
• Social and Emotional Development

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 Human Development

Physical Development Cognitive Social and Emotional

Development Development
Changes in an Changes in an Changes in an
individual’s biological individual’s thought individual’s relationships
nature (maturation). patterns, intelligence, with other people,
and language. changes in emotions, and
changes in personality.

These are all interdependent.

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 Physical
Development
 Fetal Development

Germinal Period Embryonic Period Fetal Period

(weeks 1 and 2) (weeks 3 to 8) (weeks 9 to birth)

conception until vital organs develop bones and muscles

zygote attaches to form
the uterine wall organs mature
placenta forms

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 Fetal Development
This is not always a straight-forward process.

Teratogens: Any agent (e.g., heroin, alcohol, lead) that causes a birth
defect
• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Preterm: Born prior to 38 weeks after conception

• At greater risk for developmental problems (e.g., learning
difficulties)

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 Child Development
In childhood, the development of muscular coordination (i.e., motor
development) occurs.

Reflexes:
• Some persist throughout life (e.g., coughing, blinking, yawning) •
• Some weaken or disappear by 7 months (e.g., bradycardic
response, grasping, suck, stepping)

Other skills (motor and perceptual) develop over time

• Perceptual development is tied to motor development – in that it
requires adequate perception to be able to coordinate movement.

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 Child Development
Newborns have about 100 billion neurons.
• Minimal Connections
• Myelin not fully formed

Efficiency increased by reinforcing useful

pathways (wiring) and eliminating less travelled
pathways (sculpting)
• Influenced by experiences

Synapse reduction accelerates during

adolescence
• adult brain has half as many connections

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 Adolescent
Development
Adolescents experience puberty
• Primary sex characteristics: Changes
necessary for reproduction
• Secondary sex characteristics: Non-
essential reproductive changes.

Brain development
• Prefrontal cortex last to develop
• Impulse Control
• Personality
• Complex Planning and Decision
Making

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 Cognitive
Development
 Cognitive
Development
Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive
development

He proposed that intelligence unfolds

systematically when the environment offers
adequate diversity and support for
exploration.

Children actively construct their cognitive

world using schemas to make sense of what
they experience

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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Schemas: Frameworks that organize information and allow for quick
interpretation.

People use Schemas in two ways:

1. Assimilation: Use current schemas to interpret the external world and
incorporate new information into existing schemas
2. Accommodation: Create new schemas or adjust old ones after noticing
that our current way of thinking does not capture the environment
completely

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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Assimilation Accommodation

Not a
Horse Woah!
Tail
Vary Look at
in
Size that dog!

Long
Four
Snout
Legs

Furry

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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Children do not just “know less than adults” (a quantitative difference), their
cognitive abilities are less developed (a qualitative difference).

Piaget proposed that children pass through four stages of cognitive

development.

Concrete Formal
Sensorimotor Preoperational
Operational Operational
(0 - 2) (2 - 7)
(7 – 11) (11+)

Each of Piaget’s four stages consists of a qualitatively different way of thinking.

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 Sensorimotor Stage (0-2)
Infants coordinate sensory experiences with motor actions.

The infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action to symbolic thought.

Object permanence is the knowledge that objects, and events, continue to exist
even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
• Develops by 8 months of age.

https://youtu.be/rVqJacvywAQ

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 Preoperational Stage (2-7)
The child begins to represent the world with words and images.

Words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the
connection of sensory information and physical action.

Symbolic thought is still hampered by egocentrism and lack of logical thought as

evidenced by the inability to solve conservation tasks or understand reversibility
(doing an operation in reverse).

Egocentrism: https://youtu.be/RDJ0qJTLohM

Conservation: https://youtu.be/QxUxgPwpfgk?si=tM_1SUnn6ZHj9kLL

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 Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)
The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects
into different sets (Classification).
• Develop understanding of conservation, reversibility,

Example: Children will be able to describe relations between family members at

different levels of the family tree – and will be able to distinguish that a
particular individual will have multiple roles.

Able to focus on more than one aspect of a problem to draw conclusions.

Abstract thinking has not yet developed.

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 Formal Operational Stage (11+)
Thinking becomes more idealistic, abstract, and logical.

Adolescents begin to be able to use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, develop

hypotheses, and systematically solve problems

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 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
Is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, correct?

Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than predicted.

• Infants as young as four months know that objects continue to exist when
hidden.
• Memory and other forms of symbolic activity occur by at least six months.

Some cognitive abilities emerge later than predicted.

• Many adolescents and even adults do not reason as logically as Piaget
proposed.

Piaget laid down a conceptual framework, a rough sketch of human cognitive

development.

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 RECOMMENDED BREAK

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 Social and
Emotional
Development
 Social and
Emotional
Development
Erik Erikson developed Psychosocial stages of
development.
Argued that children had an implicit goal to
separate one’s from their parents, forming
one’s own identity

Eight stages during which a psychosocial

conflict must be resolved.
• Successful resolution leads the to healthy
life outcomes.
• Failure to resolve the conflict (or a negative
outcome) leads to maladaptive outcomes.

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 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (first year)
• From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust and confidence that the
world is good.
• Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort or are handled
harshly.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (2nd and 3rd year)

• Using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for
themselves.
• Autonomy is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force
or shame the child.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (early childhood)

• Through make-believe play, children experiment with the kind of person they can
become.
• Initiative (a sense of ambition and responsibility) develops when parents support
their child’s new sense of purpose.
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• The danger is that parents will demand too much self-control, which leads to
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (middle & late childhood)
• At school, children develop the capacity to work and cooperate with others. They
also begin to compare themselves to those around them.
• Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers
lead to feelings of incompetence.

5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence)

• The adolescent tries to answer the question “Who am I?” and “What is my place in
society?”
• Self-chosen values and vocational goals lead to a lasting personal identity.
• The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

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 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (emerging adulthood)
• Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others.
• Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close
relationships and remain isolated.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (adulthood)

• Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for
other people, or productive work.
• The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful
accomplishment

8. Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)

• Individuals reflect on the kind of person they have been.
• Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened.
• Old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

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 Identity
Marcia extended Erikson’s work and argued that:
• Our “tasks” during adolescents* is to develop our sense of “self” (our
identity).
• It is necessary to go through a crisis to emerge with a stronger identity.

Proposed four identity statuses based on two dimensions:

• Exploration – whether a person is exploring options in life, such as one’s
values and possible careers.
• Commitment – a person’s commitment to a specific option (making a decision
about a specific path to follow).

Identity Status: Where we currently are with regard to establishing our sense of
identity.

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 Identity Status
Identity Diffusion
• Person has not yet explored identity possibilities and has not yet made a
commitment to a specific identity.

Identity Foreclosure
• Person has made a commitment without adequately exploring other
possibilities.

Identity Moratorium
• Person is actively exploring various identity options and is holding off on
making a commitment.

Identity Achievement
• Person has explored various possibilities and has made an (educated) choice
about an identity to pursue.
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Social and Emotional
Development
Attachment is the close emotional bond
between an infant and its caregiver.
• Freud believed that infants become
attached to whoever feeds them
• Harlow (1958) tested Freud’s hypothesis
with monkeys.

Monkeys were separated from their mothers at

birth and given access to two artificial
mothers:
• A “wire mother” that provided food
• A “cloth mother” that provided comfort
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I

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 Social and
Emotional
Development
Attachment Theory was developed by
Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby.

John Bowlby :
Described the process of attachment in human
infants.

Mary Ainsworth :
Developed ideas of attachment and a
laboratory technique for measuring attachment
in infants
https://youtu.be/QTsewNrHUHU?si=2OmNFsEO7zT9ykbm

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 Attachment Theory
Securely Attached:
• Parent is a secure base. When parent leaves, the child may cry but only because
they prefer parent to stranger. When parent returns, they actively seek contact
and crying ceases.

Avoidantly Attached:
• Infant is unresponsive to parent. When parent leaves, they are not distressed.
When parent returns, they are slow to greet and often fail to cling.

Anxiously Attached:
• Infant shows confused or contradictory behaviours. They cry when parent
leaves, but they continue to cry when parent returns while clinging and hitting
the parent.
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 Attachment Theory
Children develop internal working models that influence their future
relationships.
• Early experiences and reactions become ‘working models’ for later adult
relationships

Attachment orientations are fairly stable across different relationships (with parents,
siblings, friends, significant others, etc.)

Hazan and Shaver developed a theory of adulthood attachment that included

definitions of the attachment orientations that adults can demonstrate.

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 Attachment Theory
Secure Attachment Orientation
• Person feel comfortable getting close to and relying on others.

Avoidant Attachment Orientation

• Person is less interested in close relationships and are less invested in the
relationships. They strive to maintain independence.

Anxious Attachment Orientation

• Person desperately wants to have a close relationship, but they have difficulty
trusting other because they are scared of being abandoned.

Disorganized Attachment Orientation

• People who show high anxiety and high avoidance.

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 Attachment Theory
Shaver and Fraley (2004) developed a measure based on two dimensions of
attachment:
• Anxiety: Refers to one’s attitude to the self.
• Avoidance: Refers to one’s attitude to others.

Secure Anxious

Avoidant Disorganized

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 Attachment Theory

http://www.web-research-design.net/cgi-bin/crq/crq.pl

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 Attachment Theory
High Avoidance

Low Anxiety High Anxiety

https://www.luvze.com/attachment-sty
Low Avoidance les-at-hogwarts-love-in-harry-potters-
world/
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 Quick Question..

Should Heinz have stolen the drugs?

Why?

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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through
six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood.

He proposed three primary stages that each included two unique stages:

1. The Preconventional Stage

2. The Conventional Stage

3. The Postconventional Stage

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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
The Preconventional Stage

Moral thinking is based on punishments and rewards (external authority).

Stage 1: Punishment Orientation

• Children only obey because adults tell them to obey.
• Moral decisions are based on fear of punishment.

Stage 2: Reward Orientation

• If it gets rewarded, it must be “right.”
• Moral decisions are based on rewards for behaviour.

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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
The Conventional Stage

Moral thinking is based on parental standards or societal laws (internalized rules).

Stage 3: Interpersonal Orientation

• Approval/disapproval from close relationships.
• Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis for moral
judgments.

Stage 4: Social-System Orientation

• Moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, and justice.
• There are rules that must be obeyed by all people at all times.

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 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
The Postconventional Stage

Moral development is based on self-governing standards (personal and flexible)

Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights

• Individuals reason that social values (rights and principles) might transcend the
law.
• Acknowledging that the law sometimes may not apply (i.e., the law can be fallible).

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

• Moral judgments are based on universal human rights.
• Universal ethical principles, such as justice and equality, transcend social rules or
the law.

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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg believed that:

• Most adolescents are at stage 3 or 4 (Conventional Stage).

• Few adults reach stage 6.

• Parents contribute little to children’s moral thinking because parent-child

relationships are often too power-oriented.

• Moral reasoning does not necessarily mean moral behaviour.

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Other Forms of
Development
 Psychosexual
Theory of
Development
Sigmund Freud developed the Psychosexual Theory of
Development.

Children move through a series of stages in which they

confront conflicts between biological drives and social
expectations.

The way these conflicts are resolved determines the

person’s ability to learn, to get along with others, and to
cope with anxiety.

Difficulties arise when their needs are under- or over-

gratified.

Failure to resolve a conflict can cause development to

become “fixated” at that stage.
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Psychosexual Theory of Development
Oral Stage
Birth to 1 year

The baby is focused on sucking activities toward breast/bottle.

If oral needs are not met appropriately, the individual may develop habits such as:
• Thumb Sucking
• Fingernail Biting
• Pencil Chewing
• Overeating
• Smoking

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Psychosexual Theory of Development
Anal Stage
1 to 3 years

Young toddlers enjoy holding/releasing urine and feces.

Toilet training becomes a major life task.

If parents insist before child is ready, or make too few demands, fixations with anal
stage may appear in the form of:
• Perfectionism, Orderliness and Cleanliness
• Creative, Messiness and Disorder

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Psychosexual Theory of Development
Phallic Stage
3 to 6 years

It is during this stage that we learn about genitalia (our own and that of others).

The child discovers pleasure in genital stimulation.

Oedipus/Electra Complex: Young children feel attraction to other-sex parent.

• For attention, they adopt same-sex parent’s characteristics, values, and
behaviours.

This stage is resolved if the child identifies with the same-sex parent.

Freud suggested that fixations at this point could lead to adult personalities that
are overly vain, exhibitionistic, and sexually aggressive.
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 Psychosexual Theory of
Development
Latency Stage
6 to 11 years

Our sexual instincts subside.

This is a period of intellectual and social exploration.

• Acquires new social values from adults outside the family and from play with
same-sex peers.
• Beings to develop self-confidence.

Fixation in this stage presents itself as:

• Immaturity
• Inability to form fulfilling relationships

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Psychosexual Theory of Development
Genital
During Adolescence

Puberty causes the sexual impulses of the phallic stage to reappear.

This is when a person develops a strong sexual interest towards a specific gender.

If development has been successful during the early stages, this stage leads to:
• mature sexuality
• Marriage
• family responsibilities

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 HAVE A
FANTASTIC
DAY!