IS 221

LECTURE 2: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

DISTINCT RESEARCH APPROACHES

• Descriptive Research vs. Analytical Research

Descriptive Research : It describes the state of affairs as it
exists at present. The main characteristic of this method is that
the researcher has no control over the variables; s/he can only
report what has happened or what is happening
Analytical research: Researcher makes a critical evaluation of
the material by analyzing facts and information already
available.
DISTINCT RESEARCH APPROACHES

• Applied Research vs. Fundamental (Basic) Research

 Applied Research: finds a solution for an immediate problem facing
a society or an industrial / business organization,
 Fundamental (Basic) Research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and concentrates on the formulation of a theory
DISTINCT RESEARCH APPROACHES

• Quantitative vs. Qualitative

 Quantitative research is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity,
 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon.

• Conceptual vs. Experimental (or Empirical)

 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones
 Experimental (empirical) research relies on experiment or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment
HOW TO APPROACH RESEARCH?

• There are several basic approaches to research, but the mostly used
are: quantitative approach, qualitative approach and mixed approach
• In quantitative approach, there is the generation of data in
quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis in a formal and rigorous manner.
• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior. Research in such a
situation is a function of researcher's insights and impressions.
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH

• Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective

theories by examining the relationship among variables.
• These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using
statistical procedures
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH

• This approach can be sub-classified into inferential,

experimental and simulation approaches research.
• The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form
a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population.
 This usually means survey research where a sample of population is
studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and
it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristic
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH

• Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control

over the research environment and in this case some variables are
manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial
environment within which relevant information and data can be
generated.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding

the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem.
• The process of research involves emerging questions and procedures,
data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis
inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the
researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data.
MIXED METHODS APPROACH

• Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry involving

collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the
two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.
• The core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the
combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches provides
a more complete understanding of a research problem than
either approach alone
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• The researcher not only selects a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed

methods study to conduct; the inquirer also decides on a type of study
within these three choices.
• Research designs are types of inquiry within qualitative, quantitative,
and mixed methods approaches that provide specific direction for
procedures in a research design.
• Others have called them strategies of inquiry
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Quantitative Designs
 Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric description of
trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of
that population. It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection—
with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population
 Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific treatment
influences an outcome. The researcher assesses this by providing a
specific treatment to one group and withholding it from another and
then determining how both groups scored on an outcome.
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Qualitative Designs
 Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in
which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or
more individuals to provide stories about their lives
 Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming from
philosophy and psychology in which the researcher describes the
lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon as described by
participants. This description culminates in the essence of the
experiences for several individuals who have all experienced the
phenomenon
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Qualitative Designs
 Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher
derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in
the views of participants. This process involves using multiple stages of data
collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information
 Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in
which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and
actions of an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of
time. Data collection often involves observations and interviews.
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Qualitative Designs
• Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields,
especially evaluation, in which the researcher develops an in-
depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity,
process, or one or more individuals.
• Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect
detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures
over a sustained period of time
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Mixed Methods Designs

 Early thoughts about the value of multiple methods—called mixed
methods—resided in the idea that all methods had bias and
weaknesses, and the collection of both quantitative and qualitative
data neutralized the weaknesses of each form of data
 Triangulating data sources—a means for seeking convergence
across qualitative and quantitative methods—was born
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Mixed Methods
• Procedures for expanding mixed methods developed such as follows:
 Ways to integrate the quantitative and qualitative data, such as one
database, could be used to check the accuracy (validity) of the other
database.
 One database could help explain the other database, and one database
could explore different types of questions than the other database.
 One database could lead to better instruments when instruments are not
well-suited for a sample or population.
 One database could build on other databases, and one database could
alternate with another database back and forth during a longitudinal study.
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Mixed Methods
 Convergent parallel mixed methods is a form of mixed methods
design in which the researcher converges or merges quantitative
and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of
the research problem. In this design, the investigator typically
collects both forms of data at roughly the same time and then
integrates the information in the interpretation of the overall
results. Contradictions or incongruent findings are explained or
further probed in this design.
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Mixed Methods
 Explanatory sequential mixed methods is one in which the researcher
first conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results and then
builds on the results to explain them in more detail with qualitative
research. It is considered explanatory because the initial quantitative
data results are explained further with the qualitative data
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Mixed Methods
 Exploratory sequential mixed methods is the reverse sequence
from the explanatory sequential design. In the exploratory
sequential approach the researcher first begins with a qualitative
research phase and explores the views of participants. The data are
then analyzed, and the information used to build into a second,
quantitative phase.
RESEARCH DESIGNS

• Mixed Methods
Transformative mixed methods is a design that uses a
theoretical lens drawn from social justice or power as an
overarching perspective within a design that contains
both quantitative and qualitative data. The data in this
form of study could be converged or it could be ordered
sequentially with one building on the other
ALTERNATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
HOW TO APPROACH RESEARCH? (…)

• Each general approach— quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, and

others—is an umbrella term comprising numerous strategies for
conducting research.
• These approaches are all characterized by different philosophical belief
systems and rely on different methodological practices.
• These beliefs and practices are the elements of research
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY VERSUS
RESEARCH METHODS
• Research methods may be understood as all those
methods/techniques that are used for conducting research.
• Research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. methods which are concerned with the collection/ acquisition of data;
these methods will be used where the data already available are not
sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. mathematical/statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY VERSUS
RESEARCH METHODS
• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem;
it may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
• It is used to formulate the various steps that are to be adopted by a researcher
in studying his/her research problem along with the logic behind them.
• It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology,
• Research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do
constitute a part of the research methodology
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY VERSUS
RESEARCH METHODS
• The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research
methods.
• Thus, research methodology does not only include the research
methods but also the logic behind the methods that are used in the
context of research study.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY VERSUS
RESEARCH METHODS
• Research methodology concerning a research problem or study should try
to answer the following questions:
 Why do you use particular method or technique and why you are not using
others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher him/herself or by others.
 Why a research study has been undertaken,
 how-the research problem has been defined,
 in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated,
 what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted,
 why particular technique of analyzing data has been used and
 a host of similar other questions
RESEARCH TECHNIQUES VS RESEARCH
METHODS
• At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and
research methods.
• Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in
performing research operations such as making observations, recording
data, techniques of processing data and the like.
• Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in
selecting and constructing research technique
The difference between methods and techniques
RESEARCH PROCESS
RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Formulating the research problem:

 A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and
wants to obtain a solution for the same.
 A useful problem statement contains (1) a specific
social/engineering/scientific condition and (2) its negative consequences,
both supported with accurate data from reputable sources.
 If the social/engineering condition has no actual or potential negative
consequences, then it is not a problem.
RESEARCH PROCESS:
(1) FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
i. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
ii. There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one
cannot have a problem.
iii. There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) tor obtaining the
objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two
means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have
a problem.
iv. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question
concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
v. There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a

brief summary of it should be written down. This will answer the
question “How has the problem being addressed in the past?
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books
etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem
RESEARCH PROCESS:

• 3. Development of Hypothesis:
 Hypothesis may be defined as a tentative statement showing a relationship
among variables under study
 Hypotheses are typically used in experimental and quasi- experimental designs
and survey research
 Data analysis tests this supposition
 Interpretation of data will either disprove (reject) or support (uphold) the
hypothesis
 Hypothesis translates the problem statement into a precise, unambiguous
prediction of expected outcomes
 RESEARCH PROCESS

• 4. Preparing the research design: the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted
 The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money depending on Research purposes, that is (i)
Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation
 The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 5. Determining sample design:

 Sampling is the process by which you select a number of individual cases
from a larger population.
 The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking
into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 6. Collecting the data:

 There are a number of data collection methods as well.
 Depending on the nature of research problem a researcher may choose a
particular method, for example, observation, experiment, case study, and
survey, for data collection.
 The researcher also decides on how the tools need to be administered for
collecting data, which might be individual or group.
 In data collection phase, the researcher must consider the recruitment of staff
and assignment, way of increasing response rate, cost of training of staff, etc.
 The effect of each of these must be evaluated in terms of cost, accuracy,
reliability, and validity.
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 7. Execution of the project:

Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process.
If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the
data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 8. Analysis of data:
• The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations
such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories
to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical
inferences
• In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests
of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate any conclusion(s)
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 9. Hypothesis-testing:
• the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had
formulated earlier.
• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it
• It uses tests such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 10. Generalisations and interpretation:

• If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
• As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalisations.
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
• The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further researches.
RESEARCH PROCESS

• 11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

• Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done
by him
• The main text of the report should have the following parts:
 Introduction
 Summary of findings
 Main report:
 Conclusion
RESEARCH DESIGN

• The research design is the conceptual structure within which research

is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement and analysis of data
• A series of decisions in working out of a plan include what, why, where,
when, who, and how of the research.
RESEARCH DESIGN

• Characteristics of a Good Research Design

 it provides specific answers to the research question or questions, adequately tests
the hypothesis, presents the appropriate research question or research problem,
adequately controls the extraneous independent variable, generalizes the results of
a study to other subjects, and provides internal and external validity
 should identify the exact research problem to be studied, the objective of the
research, the process of obtaining information, the availability of adequate and
skilled manpower, and the availability of adequate financial resources for carrying
out the research.
 will clearly describe the techniques to be used for selecting samples, collecting data,
and managing costs and other aspects that are essential for conducting research.
RESEARCH DESIGN

• A research design appropriate for a particular research problem,

usually involves the consideration of the following factors:
(i) the means of obtaining information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work.
RESEARCH DESIGN

Key Parameters of a Research Design

1. Dependent and Independent Variables
 If a variable is dependent on the result of some other variable, it is then
called a dependent variable. An independent variable is not dependent on
any other variable with reference to that particular study.
 For example, height and weight are dependent on age, but age is not
dependent on height and weight. Therefore, age is an independent
variable, whereas weight and height are dependent variables.
RESEARCH DESIGN

2. Extraneous Variable
• Extraneous variables are independent variables that are not directly
linked with the study but may influence the dependent variable.
3. Control
• Control is essentially devised to minimize the effects of extraneous
variables. This is an important char acteristic of a good research design
RESEARCH DESIGN

4. Confounded Relationship
• When a dependent variable is affected by the influence of an extraneous
variable, then the relation among the dependent and independent variables is
confused or confounded by an extraneous variable.
5. Research Hypothesis
• If a hypothesized relationship or prediction or an assumption has to be tested
using scientific methods, it is called research hypothesis. A research
hypothesis links an independent variable to a dependent variable. It should
generally contain a dependent and an independent variable.
RESEARCH DESIGN

6. Experimental and Nonexperimental Hypothesis

• If the primary objective of conducting research is to test a hypothesis,
it is termed research hypothesis testing
• When an independent variable is manipulated during research, it is
called as an experimental hypothesis testing research. Non-
experimental research hypothesis testing pertains to non-manipulation
of an independent variable in research.
RESEARCH DESIGN

7. Experimental and Control Groups

• While conducting experimental research hypothesis testing, if the
group is studied under usual conditions then it is called a Control
Group. When the group is studied under special conditions, then it is
called an experimental group.
8. Treatments
• Treatments refer to the conditions to which the experimental and
control groups are subjected.
RESEARCH DESIGN

• 9. Experiment
• The process involving checking the validity of a hypothesis statement
of a research problem is called an experiment
• 10 Experimental Units
• Prespecified plots or blocks, where various treatments are used, are
called experimental units.
• Experimental units need to be defined very carefully
RESEARCH DESIGN

• Classification of Research Designs

1. Exploratory studies, which include techniques such as Secondary Data
Analysis, Experience Surveys, Focus Groups, and 2-Stage Design;
2. Descriptive studies;
3. Casual studies under which causal relationships are studied, such as
symmetrical reciprocal and asymmetrical relationships
RESEARCH DESIGN

• Exploratory research studies: are also termed as formulative research studies.

The following are the main reasons for which exploratory studies are conducted:
analyze a problem situation, evaluate alternatives, and discover new ideas.
• The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights.
• Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such
studies are talked about: (a) the survey of concerning literature; (b) the
experience survey and (c) the analysis of 'insight-stimulating' examples.
• Qualitative techniques are mostly used for conducting exploratory research.
• For example, Indepth interviews, Projective techniques, Elite interviewing, and
Document analysis need to be done.
RESEARCH DESIGN

• Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned

with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a
group, and diagnostic research studies determine the frequency
with which something occurs or its association with something else
• Descriptive studies form the basis for analytical, experimental, and
quasi-experimental studies. They help in developing hypothesis
The difference between research designs
RESEARCH DESIGN

• To identify the cause-and-effect relationship uniting variables is the

basic aim of causal studies.
• For example, if a researcher wants to establish a relationship that
proper consumption of vitamins, i.e., cause, leads to perfect body
development, i.e., effect, among children, the researcher should then
be able to prove that proper consumption of vitamins precedes perfect
body development.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Three principles of experimental designs: (1) the Principle of Replication; (2) the
Principle of Randomization; and the (3) Principle of Local Control.
• According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more
than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of
one.
• The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an
experiment, against the effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other
words, this principle indicates that we should design or plan the experiment in such
a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under
the general heading of “chance.”
• The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of
experimental designs. Under it the extraneous factor, the known source
of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as
necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability
it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the
experimental error
IMPORTANT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• Important experimental designs are as follows:

(a) Informal experimental designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.

(b) Formal experimental designs:

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial design
INFORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• 1. Before-and-after without control design: In such a design a single

test group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured
before the introduction of the treatment
• The treatment is then introduced and the dependent variable is
measured again after the treatment has been introduced.
INFORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• 2. After-only with control design: In this design two groups or areas

(test area and control area) are selected and the treatment is
introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then
measured in both the areas at the same time
INFORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• 4. Completely randomized design (C.R. design): Involves only two

principles viz., the principle of replication and the principle of
randomization of experimental designs. It is the simplest possible design
and its procedure of analysis is also easier
• (i) Two-group simple randomized design: In a two-group simple
randomized design, first of all the population is defined and then from
the population a sample is selected randomly. Further, requirement of
this design is that items, after being selected randomly from the
population, be randomly assigned to the experimental and control group
TWO-GROUP SIMPLE RANDOMIZED DESIGN
INFORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

• 3. Before-and-after with control design: In this design two areas are

selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for
an identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment is then
introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is
measured in both for an identical time-period after the introduction of
the treatment
• (ii) Random replications design: Random replication design serves two
purposes it provides controls for the differential effects of the
extraneous independent variables and secondly, it randomizes any
individual differences among those conducting the treatments.
Designs and Research Methods
SOME RESEARCHES

• Negative attitude towards Bongofleva

• Application of virtual lab
 Lecture 2 …

Sampling techniques and sample size determination

70
Objectives

— Learn the reasons for sampling

— Develop an understanding about different sampling
methods
— Distinguish between probability & non probability
sampling
— Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each
sampling methods
— list the factors influencing the sample size
— calculate the sample size using appropriate formulae

71
Sampling

 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)

collection of units from a population used to
determine truths about that population” .

 Why sample?

72
Why sample?
 Cost in terms of money, time and manpower
 Accessibility
 Utility e.g. to do diagnostic laboratory test you
don’t draw the whole of patient’s blood.
A census is a sample consisting of the entire population.
Even though a census is not full proof, it gives detailed
information about every small area of the population.
It has the following disadvantages:
 Expensive
 Takes a long time
 Cumbersome & therefore inaccurately done ( a careful sample
produces a more accurate data than a census.)

73
Sampling…..
 Sampling is the process of selecting a representative sample
from populations.
 It Selecting cases (elements)—or locating people (or other units of analysis)
—from a target population in order to study the population.

sampling
Sample
Inference
Population
74
Cont’d
 The process of obtaining information from a subset (sample) of a larger
group (population)
 The results for the sample are then used to make estimates of the larger
group
 Faster and cheaper than asking the entire population
 Two keys
1. Selecting the right people
 Have to be selected scientifically so that they are representative of the population
2. Selecting the right number of the right people
 To minimize sampling errors I.e. choosing the wrong people by chance

75
 Population Vs. Sample
Population of Interest

Population Sample

Sample
Parameter
Statistic

We measure the sample using statistics in order to draw

inferences about the population and its parameters.

76
Characteristics of Good Samples
o Representation
 Sample surveys are almost never conducted for the
purposes of describing the particular sample under
study. Rather they are conducted for purposes of
understanding the larger population from which the
sample was initially selected
 A great deal of work has been done over the years in
developing sampling methods that provide
representative samples for the general population.
E.g. international survey programs such as the DHS series, EPI
coverage surveys have perfected the art of household sampling.
77
Characteristics of Good Samples

 3 factors that influence sample representativeness

 Sampling procedure
 Sample size
 Participation (response)

 When might you sample the entire population?

 When your population is very small
 When you have extensive resources
 When you don’t expect a very high response
o Accessible
o Low cost
78
Basic Terms

 population (also called source population or target

population): is a group of individuals persons, objects, or
items from which samples are taken for measurement.

 It refers to the entire group of individuals or objects to

which researchers are interested in generalizing the
conclusions.

79
Basic term cont’d….

80
 Basic Terms cont’d…

 Census: Obtained by collecting information about each

member of a population. Studying the whole population and
requires a great deals of time, money and energy.

 Sample survey: study sample and draw conclusions about

populations. It is cheaper in terms of cost, practical &
convenient in terms of technicalities, saves time & energy.

81
 Basic Terms cont’d…

 Sampling Frame: is the list of people from which the

sample is taken. It is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn.

It should be comprehensive, complete and up-to-date.

Examples of sampling frame: Electoral Register;
Postcode Address File; telephone book and so on.
 Probability samples: With probability sampling methods, each
population element has a known (non-zero) chance of being
chosen for the sample.

82
 Basic term cont’d….

 Non-probability samples: With non-probability sampling

methods, we do not know the probability that each
population element will be chosen, and/or we cannot be sure
that each population element has a non-zero chance of being
chosen
 Sampling unit - the unit of selection in the sampling process
 Study unit (study subjects)- the unit on which information
is collected or on which observations are made. E.g. Familiar
examples are families, towns, litters, branches of a company,
individual subjects or schools.
83
 Basic term cont’d….

• The sampling unit is not necessarily the same as the study

unit.
• If the objective is to determine the availability of latrine,
• then the study unit would be the household;
• If the objective is to determine the prevalence of
trachoma, then the study unit would be the individual.
Sampling fraction (Sampling interval) - the ratio of the
number of units in the sample to the number of units in the
reference population (N/n)

84
Hierarchy of sampling Study subjects
The actual
participants in
the study

Sample
Subjects who are
selected

Sampling Frame
The list of potential subjects
from which the sample is
drawn

Source population
The Population from whom the study
subjects would be obtained

Target population 85

The population to whom the results would be

 Errors in statistical Study

A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it

comes, however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be
precisely representative of the population.
No sample is the exact mirror image of the population .

Sampling or Random

Errors
Non-sampling or
systematic
86
1. Sampling error

– random error- the sample selected is not

representative of the population due to chance
– The uncertainty associated with an estimate that is based
on data gathered from a sample of the population rather
than the full population is known as sampling error.
– Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample
estimates around the true population parameters.

87
Sampling error cont’d…

the level of it is controlled by sample size

a larger sample size leads to a smaller sampling error. it
decreases with the increase in the size of the sample,
and it happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of
homogeneous population.
When n = N ⇒ sampling error = 0

 Can not be avoided or totally eliminated

88
 Sampling error cont’d…

why do sample estimates have uncertainty associated

with them? There are two reasons.
 Estimates of characteristics from the sample data can
differ from those that would be obtained if the entire
population were surveyed.

 Estimates from one subset or sample of the population

can differ from those based on a different sample from
the same population (sample to sample variations).

89
 The cause of sampling error

Chance: main cause of sampling error and is the error that

occurs just because of bad luck.

Sampling bias: Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the

selection of participants that have particular characteristics.
The chance component (sometimes called random error)
exists no matter how carefully the selection procedures are
implemented, and the only way to minimize chance-
sampling errors is to select a s u ff i c i e n t l y l a rg e
sample.
90
 2. Non Sampling Error

It is a type of systematic error in the design or conduct of a

sampling procedure which results in distortion of the sample, so
that it is no longer representative of the reference population.

We can eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias) by

careful design of the sampling procedure and not by increasing
the sample size.

It can occur whether the total study population or a sample is

being used.

91
Non-sampling Error……
o The basic types of non-sampling error
 Non-response error
 Response or data error
o A non-response error occurs when units selected as part of the
sampling procedure do not respond in whole or in part
 If non-respondents are not different from those that did
respond, there is no non-response error
 When non-respondents constitute a significant proportion of
the sample (about 15% or more

92
Non-sampling Error…….
o A response or data error is any systematic bias
that occurs during data collection, analysis or
interpretation
 Respondent error (e.g., lying, forgetting, etc.)
 Interviewer bias
 Recording errors
 Poorly designed questionnaires

93
Non-Sampling Error cont’d …

Systematic error makes survey results unrepresentative of the

target population by distorting the survey estimates in one
direction.

Random error can distort the results in any given direction but
tend to balance out on average
Thus, the total survey error

sampling error + non-sampling error

94
 Advantage of sampling

We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a

census ) of the population for many reasons.
 Feasibility it may be the only feasible method of
collecting data
 Reduced cost sampling reduces demands on resource
such as finance, personal and material
 Greater accuracy sampling may lead to better accuracy
of collecting data.
 Greater speed data can be collected and summarized
more quickly

95
 Disadvantage of Sampling

If sampling is biased, or not representative or too small the

conclusion may not be valid and reliable

If the population is very large and there are many sections and
subsections, the sampling procedure becomes very complicated

If the researcher does not possess the necessary skill and

technical knowledge in sampling procedure, then the outcome
will be devastated.

96
 Characteristics Of A Good Sample Design

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics
of a good sample design as:
Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling
error.
Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for
the research study.
Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
97
 Types of Sampling

How we Selecting the right subjects

o The sample that we draw for our study

determines the generalizability of our
findings.
o Sample should to have a good representation
of the population.

98
 Types of Sampling Methods

Sampling Method

Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple Stratified
Random
Quota
Judgemental
Systematic Cluster

Convenience
Multistage Random
Sampling
99
 Probability Sampling Method …

The random ("equal chance“) and "independent" components of

random sampling are what makes us confident that the sample has
a reasonable chance of representing the population

What does it mean to be independent? The researchers select each

person for the study separately.

Let us say you were asked to participate in an experiment, enjoyed

it, and told your friends to contact the researcher to volunteer for
the study.

 This would be an example of non-independent sampling.

100
 Probability Sampling Method cont’d …

In probability sampling
A sampling frame exists or can be compiled.
should have an equal or at least a known or nonzero chance
of being included in the sample.
Generalization is possible (from sample to population)
 Simple Random Sampling,
 Systematic Sampling,
 Stratified Random Sampling,
 Cluster Sampling
 Multistage Sampling.
101
 1. Simple Random Sampling(SRS)

Simple random sampling is the most straightforward of the

random sampling strategies.

To use SRS there should be

o sampling frame for the population
1
o All possible samples of “n” subjects are equally likely ( n ) to occur.
o population is small, relatively homogeneous & readily available

102
 Simple Random Sampling cont’d …

Procedures to select the sample

 The specific procedures that you follow may vary depending
on your resources, but all involve some type of random
process. Depending on the complexity of the population, we
can use different tools to select “n” samples from the given
sampling frame.
 These are lottery method,
 table of random number (they are available in the appendix
of many research methods and statistics textbooks) or
 computer generated random number.

103
 Simple Random Sampling cont’d …
Lottery method is appropriate if the total population is not too
large, otherwise if the population is too large then it will be very
difficult to use lottery method.
Thus, table of random number or computer generated random
number is the feasible method to be used.
Sampling schemes may be
o without replacement- no element can be selected more than once in the
same sample,  N possible samples.

n 

 
o with replacement- an element may appear multiple times in the one sample
possible samples.n
N
104
 Example

Assume that the total number of patients who visit Gondar

University Hospital for the last six months is “N”. We want to
see the prevalence of TB among those patients who visited the
hospital.

ti on is
pop ul a
ou g h t h e
m a y not be
Th
g e n e o u s, there
homo f r ame .
avail a bl e
so
what?

105
 2. Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic sampling is thought as random, as long as the periodic interval is

determined beforehand and the starting point is random
A method of selecting sample members from a larger population according to
a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval.
Typically, every nth member is selected from the total population for inclusion
in the sample population.
It is frequently chosen by researchers for its simplicity and its periodic
quality.
it needs the population to be homogeneous, however the method does not
require frame.

106
Steps in systematic sampling:

Define the population

Determine the desired sample size (n)
List the population from 1 to N
Determine K, where k=N/n
Select a random number between 1 and k, let us denote this number by “a”
Starting at a, take every Kth number on the list until the desired sample is
obtained.
Then the selected list will be
a, a+k, a+2k, a+3k, …, a+(n-1)k

Note: Systematic sampling should not used when a cyclic repetition is

inherent in the sampling frame

107
E.g. systematic sampling

• N = 1200, and n = 60
sampling fraction = 1200/60 = 20
• List persons from 1 to 1200
• Randomly select a number between 1 and 20
(e.g. 8)
• 1st person selected = the 8th on the list
• 2nd person = 8 + 20 = 28th list e.t.c.

108
 Systematic sampling….

o It relies on arranging the target population according to some

ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular
intervals through that ordered list.

o Systematic sampling involves a random start and then

proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then
onwards. In this case, k =(population size/sample size).
o It is important that the starting point is not automatically the
first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within
the first to the kth element in the list.

109
 Though the frame available, the population may
not be homogeneous, so what?

110
 3. Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is used when we have subgroups in

our population that are likely to differ substantially in their
responses or behavior (i.e. if the population is heterogeneous).

In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into

a number of parts or 'strata' according to some characteristic,
chosen to be related to the major variables being studied.

For example, you are interested in visual-spatial reasoning and

previous research suggests that men and women will perform
differently on these types of task
111
 Stratified Random Sampling cont’d…

So, you divide your sample into male and female members and
randomly select the required sample size within each subgroup
(or "stratum")

With this technique, you are guaranteed to have enough of each

subgroup for meaningful analysis.

Often we used simple random sampling to select a sample from

each strata after stratification.

112
Steps involve in stratified sampling method:
Define the population
Determine the desired sample size
Identify the variable and subgroups (strata) for which you want to
guarantee appropriate representation (either proportional or equal)

Classify all members of the population as a member of one of the

identified subgroups
Randomly select (using simple random sampling or others) an appropriate
number of individuals from each subgroup.

Then the total sample size will be the sum of all samples from each
subgroup. 113
 There are two methods to get the study subject from each subgroup,
proportional allocation or
equal allocation.
We use proportional allocation technique when our subgroups vary dramatically in size
in our population
 Let N be total population and N1, N2 . . . . Nk be the subtotal population for strata 1, 2,
…. K respectively. Moreover let n be the total sample size and n1, n2…..nk be th
subsample for strata 1, 2…..k respectively in which N = N1 + N2 +….. …+ NK
and n = n1 + n2 + …………..+ nk
Then the subsample “ni “which will be selected from subgroup Ni can be computed by

n  Ni
ni  where i 1, 2, 3........k
N
114
The higher the population in the subgroup, the higher the
sample size will be.

However, equal allocation will be used if the total population

from each subgroup is approximately equal.

115
Advantage of stratified sampling over simple random sampling

The representativeness of the sample is improved. That is,

adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can
be ensured by stratification and by varying the sampling
fraction between strata as required.

DEMERIT
Sampling frame for the entire population has to be prepared
separately for each stratum.

116
 4. Cluster Random Sampling

In this sampling scheme, selection of the required sample is done on groups

of study units (clusters) instead of each study unit individually.
The sampling unit is a cluster, and the sampling frame is a list of these
clusters.
If the study covers wide geographical area, using the other methods will be
too costly.
The idea is, divided the total population in to different clusters and then the
unit of selection will be cluster.
Therefore, total population in the selected cluster will be taken as the sample.

117
 Steps in cluster sampling are:

 Define the population

 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify and define a logical cluster (can be kebele, Got, residence,
and so on)
 Make a list of all clusters in the population
 Estimate the average number of population number per cluster
 Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size
by the estimated size of the cluster
 Randomly select the required number of clusters (using table of
random number as the total number of clusters is manageable)
 Include in the sample all population in the selected cluster.
118
Consider the following graphical display:

119
 5. Multistage Random Sampling

This is the most complex sampling strategy.

The researcher combines simpler sampling methods to address sampling
needs in the most effective way of possible.
Example 1,
 The administrator might begin with a cluster sample of all schools in the
district.
 Then he might set up a stratified sampling process within clusters.
 Within schools, the administrator could conduct a simple random sample
of classes or grades.
 By combining various methods, researchers achieve a rich variety of
results useful in different contexts.

120
 Non-Probability Sampling Method

In the presence of constraints to use probability sampling

strategies, the alternative sampling method is non-probability
sampling method.

Non-probability sampling strategies are used when it is

practically impossible to use probability sampling strategies.

Non-probability sampling is sampling procedure which does not

afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in
the population has of being included in the sample.

121
Cont’d……….

 Subjective units of population have a zero or unknown

probability of selection before drawing the as sample. Hence
obtained a non-representative samples.
 Sampling error can not be computed
 Survey results cannot be projected to the population

Advantages
 Cheaper and faster than probability
 Reasonably representative if collected in a thorough manner
122
 1. Judgment Sampling/ Purposive sampling

The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. A researcher exerts some effort in
selecting a sample that seems to be most appropriate for the study.

This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched

123
2. Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling selects a particular group of people but

it does not come close to sampling all of a population.

The sample would generalize only to similar programs in

similar cities.
It looks just like cluster sampling.
The major difference is that the clusters of research
participants are selected by convenience rather than by a
random process.

124
Cont’d………..

 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or

accidental or haphazard sampling.

 A type of non probability sampling which involves the sample

being drawn from that part of the population which is close to
hand. That is, readily available and convenient.

 The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make

generalizations about the total population from this sample
because it would not be representative enough.

 This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

125
3. Quota sampling

It is a method that ensures a certain number of sample units

from different categories with specific characteristics are
represented. The investigator interviews as many people in
each category of study unit as he can find until he has filled his
quota.
It is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. This
differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled
by random sampling.
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups, just as in stratified sampling.

126
Cont’d

 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from

each segment based on a specified proportion.

 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample

200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and
60.

 It is this second step which makes the technique one

of non-probability sampling.

127
Cont’d
 In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.

 For example interviewers might be tempted to interview

those who look most helpful. The problem is that these
samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of
selection.

 This random element is its greatest weakness and quota

versus probability has been a matter of controversy for many
years

128
 4. Snowball sampling

It is a special non-probability method used when the

desired sample characteristic is rare.
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial
subjects to generate additional subjects.
What we need to do in case of snowball sampling is
that first identify someone who meets the criteria and
then let him/her bring the other he/she knew.

129
Cont’d
 While this technique can dramatically lower search costs,
it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the
technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will
represent a good cross section from the population.

 Selection of additional respondents is based on

referrals from the initial respondents.
 friends of friends
 Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations.

130
 Sample Size Determination

Determining the sample size for a study is a crucial component

of study to include sufficient numbers of subjects so that
statistically significant results can be detected.

"How large a sample do I need?“

The answer will depend on the aims, nature and scope of the
study and on the expected result. All of which should be
carefully considered at the planning stage.

131
 Sample……

o If sample (“n”) is
 Large
Increase accuracy
 Costy / complex
Take
Optimum
 Small sample
o Decrease accuracy
o Less costy

How ?

132
Factors to determine sample size
 Size of population
 Resources – subjects, financial, manpower
 Method of Sampling- random, stratified
 Degree of difference to be detected
 Variability (S.D.) – pilot study, historical
 Degree of Accuracy (or errors)
- Type I error (alpha) p<0.05
- Type II error (beta) less than 0.2 (20%)
- Power of the test : more than 0.8 (80%)
 Statistical Formulae
 Dropout rate, non-compliance to Rx

133
o Sample size determination depending on outcome variables.

There are three possible categories of outcome variables.

 The first is where the variable of interest has only two
alternatives response: yes/no, dead/alive, vaccinated/not
vaccinated and so on.
 The second category covers those outcome variable with
multiple, mutually exclusive alternatives responses, such as
marital status, religion, blood group and so on.
 For these two categories of outcome variables, the data are
generally express as percentages or rates.
 So we can use percentage to compute the sample size.

134
 The third category covers continuous response variables
such as birth weight, age at first marriage, blood
pressure and cerium uric acid level, for which
numerical measurement are usually made.

 In this case the data are summarize in the form of means

and standard deviations or their derivatives.

135
 Sample Size………...

There are several approaches to determining the sample size.

Depending on the type of response variable, whether it is

categorical or continuous, we will have two sets of formulas.

The sample size determination formulas come from the formulas

for the maximum error of the estimates and is derived by solving
for n.

136
Sample for Single population
To estimate sample size for single survey using simple or systematic
random sampling, need to know:
oEstimate of the prevalence of the outcome
o Precision desired
o Design effect
o Size of total population
oLevel of confidence (always use 95%)

137
 Sample size for single population mean

This is the condition in which the research question is about

mean.
Standard deviation () of the population: It is rare that a
researcher knows the exact standard deviation of the population.
Typically, the standard deviation of the population is estimated:
 from the results of a previous survey,
 from a pilot study,
 from secondary data,
 from judgment of the researcher.

138
Maximum acceptable difference (w): This is the maximum
amount of error that you are willing to accept.
Desired confidence level (Z/2 ) : is your level of certainty that
the sample mean does not differ from the true population mean
by more than the maximum acceptable difference. Commonly
we use a 95% confidence level.
Then the sample size determination formula for single
population mean is defined by:
z22   2
n 
w2
139
Sample size for single population mean cont’d…

 Where
 α= The level of significance which can be obtain as 1-
confidence level.
 σ=Standard deviation of the population
 w= Maximum acceptable difference
 z α/2 = The value under standard normal table for the
given value of confidence level

140
Sample Size for Single Population Proportion

This is the situation in which the variable of interest is categorical.

Three questions must be answered to determine the sample size for
single population proportion:
Best estimate of population proportion of the variable of interest :
Make your best estimate of what the actual percent of the survey
characteristic is.
The possible source of this proportion are:
 from the results of a previous study,
 item from a pilot study,
 item judgment of the researcher.
 item Simply taking 50%

141
Then the formula for the sample size of single population proportion is
defined as:

z22 * p (1  p )
n 2
w

Where α = the level of significance which can be obtained as 1- confidence level.

P = best estimate of population proportions
W = maximum acceptable difference
z 2 the value under standard normal table for the given value of confidence
level

142
 Example 1

One of MPH student want to conduct a research on the prevalence of ANC utilization
of mothers in DABAT district. Given that the prevalence from the previous study found
to be 45.7% , what will be the sample size he should take to address his objective?
Solution:
 Margin of error d= 5%
 A confidence level of 95% will give the value of as Zα/2=1.96.
 Then using the formula :

2 2
 Z  P (1  P )  Z 
 0.05  0.457 (1  0.457 )
n  2 
2
 2 

W 0.05 2


1.96  0.457(0.543)
2

0.05 2
382

143
 Some Considerations
 The final sample size will be corrected for
 Nonresponse, lost to follow up, lack of compliance and so on
 Consider the total size of the population (N): if N <10000 then we need correction the formula
which is defined by

no
nf 
n
1 o
N

 Where nf = final sample size, no = sample size from the above formula and N total
population.
 Take the design effect in to account if needed

144
Incorrect sample size will lead to
o Wrong conclusions
o Poor quality research (Errors)
o Type II error can be minimized by increasing the sample size
o Waste of resources
o Loss of money
o Ethical problems
o Delay in completion

145
 Example 2

Midwifery graduate student wants to do her thesis work on the

title “assessment of the outcome of pregnancy among women
who visited Gondar university hospital gynecology and obstetrics
ward for the year 2010”
What will be the sample size she should take for this study?

146
147