AGGRESSION

Causes, Theories and Reducing

Aggression
 What is Aggression?
Actions designed to harm others in some way.
Aggression is overt or covert, often harmful, social interaction with
the intention of inflicting damage or other harm upon another
individual; although it can be channeled into creative and practical
outlets for some.

Do We Live in a World Where Humiliating Others Is

Acceptable?
 TYPES OF AGGRESION
Hostile aggression:
Aggression in which the
prime objective is
inflicting some kind of
harm on the victim.
Instrumental
aggression: Aggression
in which the primary
goal is not to harm the
victim but rather
attainment of some
other goal—for example,
access to valued
resources.
 Causes of Aggression
These include basic social factors, the words or actions of other
people, either “in the flesh” or as shown in the mass media. Social
Exclusion and Exposure to Media Violence.
Cultural factors, such as norms requiring that individuals respond
aggressively to insults to their honor; rigid gender roles (threats to
masculinity)
Situational factors, aspects of the external world such as high
temperatures and alcohol.
Aspects of personality, traits that predispose some people toward aggressive
outbursts; Do you know anyone you could describe as (1) extremely competitive, (2)
always in a hurry, and (3) especially irritable and aggressive? If so, this person shows
the characteristics of what psychologists term the Type A behavior pattern. At the
opposite end of the continuum are people who do not show these characteristics—
individuals who are not highly competitive, who are more relaxed and not always
fighting the clock, and who do remain calm even in the face of strong provocation;
such people are described as showing the Type B behavior pattern.
TASS model—the traits as situational sensitivities model. This model suggests that
many aspects of personality function in a threshold-like manner: Only when
situational factors are strong enough to trigger them do they influence behavior. (In
contrast, a more traditional model of how personality factors influence behavior
suggests that such factors are most likely to exert strong or clear effects in
ambiguous or “weak” situations—ones that don’t require people to behave in certain
ways.) When applied to aggression, the TASS model makes the following prediction:
The tendency to behave aggressively (sometimes known as trait aggressiveness) will
only influence overt behavior when situational factors are strong enough to activate
it. For people high in this trait, even weak provocations will stimulate an aggressive
reaction.
Perspectives on Aggression:
Role of Biological Factors
The most famous supporter of this theory was Sigmund Freud, who
held that aggression stems mainly from a powerful death wish
(thanatos) we all possess. According to Freud, this instinct is initially
aimed at self-destruction, but is soon redirected outward, toward
others.
A related view was proposed by Konrad Lorenz, a Nobel Prize–
winning ethologist, who suggested that aggression springs mainly
from an inherited fighting instinct, which ensures that only the
strongest males will obtain mates and pass their genes on to the
next generation.
Evolutionary Perspective
 Drive Theories of
Aggression
Theories suggesting that aggression stems from external conditions
that arouse the motive to harm or injure others. The most famous of
these is the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
Modern Theories of Aggression:
The Social Learning Perspective
and The General Aggression
Model
Aggression is acquired by other complex forms of social behavior: through direct
experience or by observing the behavior of others (i.e., social models—live people
or characters on television, in movies, or even in video games who behave
aggressively)
Thus, depending on their past experience and the cultures in which they live,
individuals learn (1) various ways of seeking to harm others, (2) which people or
groups are appropriate targets for aggression, (3) what actions by others justify
retaliation or vengeance on their part, and (4) what situations or contexts are ones
in which aggression is permitted or even approved.
In short, the social learning perspective suggests that whether a specific person will
aggress in a given situation depends on many factors, including the person’s past
experience, the current rewards associated with past or present aggression, and
attitudes and values that shape this person’s thoughts concerning the
appropriateness and potential effects of such behavior.
 General Aggression Model
According to this theory, a chain of events that may ultimately lead to overt
aggression can be initiated by two major types of input variables: (1) factors relating
to the current situation (situational factors).
and (2) factors relating to the people involved (person factors). Variables falling into
the first category include frustration, some kind of provocation from another person
(e.g., an insult), exposure to other people behaving aggressively (aggressive models,
real or in the media), and virtually anything that causes individuals to experience
discomfort—everything from uncomfortably high temperatures to a dentist’s drill or
even an extremely dull lecture.
Variables in the second category (individual differences across people) include traits
that predispose some individuals toward aggression (e.g., high irritability), certain
attitudes and beliefs about violence (e.g., believing that it is acceptable and
appropriate), a tendency to perceive hostile intentions in others’ behavior, and specific
skills related to aggression (e.g., knowing how to fight or how to use various weapons).
 Continued
According to the general aggression model (GAM), these situational
and individual (personal) variables lead to overt aggression through
their impact on three basic processes: arousal—they may increase
physiological arousal or excitement; affective states—they can
arouse hostile feelings and outward signs of these (e.g., angry facial
expressions); and cognitions—they can induce individuals to think
hostile thoughts or can bring beliefs and attitudes about aggression
to mind.
Depending on individuals’ interpretations (appraisals) of the current
situation and restraining factors (e.g., the presence of police or the
threatening nature of the intended target person), they then
engage either in thoughtful action, which might involve restraining
their anger, or impulsive action, which can lead to overt aggressive
actions
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Basic Sources of Aggression
Frustration- This widespread belief in the importance of frustration
as a cause of aggression stems, at least in part, from the famous
frustration-aggression hypothesis mentioned in our discussion of
drive theories of aggression (Dollard et al., 1939). In its original
form, this hypothesis made two sweeping assertions: (1) Frustration
always leads to some form of aggression and (2) aggression always
stems from frustration.
Provocation- Actions by others that tend to trigger aggression in
the recipient, often because they are perceived as stemming from
malicious intent.
Teasing- Provoking statements that call attention to an individual’s
flaws and imperfections, but can be, at the same time, somewhat
playful in nature.
 BULLYING
A pattern of behavior in which one individual
is chosen as the target of repeated aggression
by one or more others; the target person (the
victim) generally has less power than those
who engage in aggression (the bullies).
Among boys, both the desire to gain power
and to be part of powerful groups were
significantly related to bullying, while feeling
depressed was not. For girls, all three motives
were related to bullying. This suggests that
for girls, at least, aggressing against someone
who can’t retaliate is one technique for
countering the negative feelings of
depression.
 Characteristics of Bullies
and Victims
First, bullies tend to believe that others act the way they do intentionally or because of
lasting characteristics.
In contrast, victims tend to perceive others as acting as they do at least in part because they
are responding to external events of conditions, including how others have treated them.
Another difference is that bullies (and also bully-victims) tend to be lower in self-esteem than
other people. As a result, they aggress against others to build up their self-image. In
addition, bullies tend to adopt a ruthless, manipulative approach to life and to dealing with
other people.
They believe that others are not to be trusted, so they feel it is totally justified to break their
word and take unfair advantage of others (e.g., to attack them when their guard is down).
Finally, bullies and bully-victims believe that the best way to respond to bullying is with
aggression. They believe, more than other people, that being highly aggressive will bring
them high levels of respect.
 Prevention and Control of
Aggression
Punishment can reduce aggression, but only if it meets four basic
requirements: (1) it must be prompt—it must follow aggressive
actions as quickly as possible; (2) it must be certain to occur—the
probability that it will follow aggression must be very high; (3) it
must be strong—strong enough to be highly unpleasant to potential
recipients; and (4) it must be perceived by recipients as justified or
deserved.
Catharsis Hypothesis- The view that providing angry people with an
opportunity to express their aggressive impulses in relatively safe
ways will reduce their tendencies to engage in more harmful forms
of aggression.
Self Regulation of Emotions
 People are especially likely to
lash out at others when their
egos are threatened—when
something threatens to deflate
their overinflated self-image.
Self Affirmations/ Increasing Self
Esteem- the recognition and
assertion of the existence and
value of one's individual self.