UNIT 2.

CHAPTER 4
CONNECTIVITY
Connectivity is a way in which
digital devices exchange data
and communicate with each
other.
 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

• The use of digital technology improves and shrinks the

planet. They facilitate communication, entertainment,
friendship maintenance, and information gathering
for us.
• Digital communication networks, both wired and
wireless, connect the entire world today. These
systems have data flows that carry information about
our personal and professional life as well as
entertainment and news for us.
SPEED AND VOLUME OF DATA
TRANSFER
• As we transfer more data, it becomes increasingly
important to understand how to increase the
speed at which we can transfer it. If we don't,
transferring more data will result in longer
transfer times.
• The speed at which devices can transfer data
depends on the bandwidth of the connection.
• Bandwidth is the number of bits that can be
carried by a connection in one second.
Impact on user experience
• A larger bandwidth enables the transfer of
more data per second. Downloads and
uploads get faster as a result. It also enables
activities like multiplayer online gaming and
high-definition video streaming that call for
large amounts of data to be transferred
quickly.
• When streaming video, all of the data does not need to be
downloaded before can start. Instead, a portion of the video data is
stored temporarily in an area of memory called a buffer.
• The video will not start until there is enough data in the buffer to play
a few seconds of video. While those few seconds are playing, more is
downloaded to fill up the buffer.
• If the buffer is empty, there is no more video to play and it will pause
until more data is downloaded.
• To avoid the buffer becoming empty, data must be constantly
downloaded into the buffer, filling it up at a rate faster than it is
emptied.
• Buffer is an area of memory used to temporarily store data, especially
when streaming video.
In online gaming, the game will play smoothly if the
bandwidth is adequate. However, if the latency is high, events
in the game will lag and the game will not seem responsive to
the player’s comcmands. When watching live television, high
latency will result in delay between the real-time events and
the video which slows the overall data transfer rate
The speed of data transfer also depends on the latency.
• Latency is the delay in the time it takes to send data between
devices.
Factors that affects speed and volume of data transfer

When devices transfer data, they can be affected by

many factors that stop bits from reaching their
destination
These factors include: -
1. Transfer method
• Wireless methods have to work on a limited number
of frequencies. In comparison, copper cable can carry
more frequencies than wireless methods. This means
that cabled methods can have more bandwidth
available to them than wireless methods.
2. Interference
• Other electromagnetic signals disrupt or interfere with wired and
wireless signals, interference can be caused signals from wireless
devices router and appliances emitting electromagnetic fields like
fridges and microwave ovens. Cabled connections can be shielded
(protected) from this interference by having the wires wrapped in
a thin layer of metal.
3. Blockages
• Walls and furniture reduce the strength of wireless signals. This
reduces available bandwidth.
4. Distance
• The strength of wired or wireless signals is reduced as the
distance that it has to travel increases
 DEVICE TO DEVCE COMMUNICATION

• Device communication is when Devices connect directly to each other

using wired or wireless methods.
Device 1 Device 2 Connection between device use
1 and device 2
Temperature sensor Air Wired To turn on the air conditioning
conditioner when the temperature is too
high
Smartphone Headphone Minijack To play music from the
smartphone on the
headphones
Laptop External hard USB To transfer files
drive
Camcorder Monitor HDMI To operate as a security
camera
Games controller Games console Bluetooth To control a game
 NETWORK COMMUNICATION
• A network is created when two or more computers are linked
together.
• There are four major types of network.
1. Local area network (LAN)
• A LAN is a network that connects digital devices
that are in a small geographical area like a building
or group of buildings that are close to each other
• LANs are found in homes, schools and office
buildings
2. Wide area network (WAN)
• A WAN is a network that is spread over a large
geographical. WANs are often used to connect
different buildings owned by national and international
business, law enforcement departments, heath and
education organizations and government departments.
• WANs are use connectivity provided by a third-party
telecommunications company, often linking LANs
together through the internet. Because of their wider
reach, WANs are often have slower transfer speeds
than LANs
3. Personal area network (PAN)
• A PAN is a group of connected devices that are all
near an individual user. For example. A user could
connect their smartwatch to their smartphones,
which is connected to their laptop and home cinema
speaker system.
• When PAN only uses wireless connectivity, it can also
be referred to as a WPAN (wireless personal area
network). However, the general term PAN is more
commonly used to refer to all types of PAN.
4. TETHERING
• Tethering is the process of connecting a host
device, such as a smartphone or a tablet
device, that uses a mobile broadband
connection with one or more device’s
broadband connection.
THE WAYS IN WHICH DDIGITAL DEVICES COMMUNICATE
The method that digital devices use to share data and some common uses of these methods as shown below.

Method Technology use

Satellite Radio waves GPS, Television, Telephone,
Military
Broadcast Radio waves Television shows, radio
shows
Wired Electrical signals Networking, connecting
peripherals
Wireless Radio waves Networking, connecting
peripherals
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
•Satellites transmit data to and receive
data from digital devices. Digital devices
use antennae to receive the radio signals
that satellites transmit.
• The benefit of satellite communication is that the
number of satellites means that the system is always
available.
• It also cannot be affected by power shortages.

• The drawback is that they will not work in areas with

tall buildings or in tunnels.
• Signals can also be affected by atmosphere weather
conditions such as heavy snow or rain
GPS-GLOBAL POSITIONING SATALITTE
• Satellite communications are used for GPS.
Navigation aids make use of GPS signals to
calculate the exact location of a device. GPS
signals are sent from a network of 24 satellites
orbiting the Earth. At any one time, a device will
be within view of approximately 12 of these
satellites. However, a view of only four satellites
is required to calculate location as shown below.
TELEVISION
• Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) is the internationally
accepted standard methods of broadcasting digital
television. DVB-S (Digital Video Broadcasting-Satellite)
of one example of DVB. A video signal from the
broadcaster is transmitted using a large antenna on
earth to one or more satellites, which then broadcast
the signals back down to Earth
TELEPHONE
• Satellite communication is also used to allow people
in remote areas to place voice calls using satellite
telephone.

• Satellite telephones use antennae to transmit data to ( and

receive data from) one or more satellite.
MILITARY
• The military in many countries use satellites for
communication systems, such as the Global
Command and Control system.
BROADCAST COMMUNICATION

ANALOGUE TELEVISION RADIO

• Transmitters broadcast television and radio
signals that are received by a viewer’s antenna.
• This antenna sends a signal through a wire to the
television or radio receiver, which converts it
into images and audio.
Diagram showing digital signals received
by the antenna connected on the TV.
WIRED COMMUNICATION

• Devices can use cables to communicate with each other via

a wired connection.
• There are many different types of wired communication.
Some are used for many different purposes, such as USB.
• Other are only used to meet one particular need, such as
Ethernet.
Ethernet allows a user to connect to wired network
• Ethernet-is a network connectivity standard that provides a way
for computers to communicate.
ETHERNET
CABLES
 Common wired connection types and their uses

Connection type use

HDMI Digital video connections
S/PDIF Digital audio connections
Minijack Personal headphones
USB Storage transfer
Ethernet Networking
 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
TYPES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

1. WI-FI
• WI-FI is used in home, schools and office networks.
Some companies provide Wi-Fi access in towns and
cities. Wi-Fi is a wireless technology used to connect
to a network. That network can itself then be
connected to the internet, so that devices connected
to the Wi-Fi network can be connect to the internet.
2. BLUETOOTH
• Bluetooth is type of wireless connectivity that lets devices connect
over short distances. It cannot carry as much data as Wi-Fi.
• Bluetooth devices need to be paired (connect two devices-usually
only with each other) with each other before they can
communicate.
• Bluetooth can be used to transfer small files between devices.
• It is used to connect devices such as smartphones and laptops to
peripherals such as portable speakers, headphones, earphones,
keyboards, and mice.
3. 3G and 4G
• 3G and 4G are sometimes referred to as mobile
broadband.
• They are used to provide internet access to
mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet
devices when a Wi-Fi signal is not available.
• G stands for “Generation” meaning that 4G is
the fourth generation of mobile broadband
technology.
4. INFRA-RED (IR)
• Infra-red signals cannot carry much data and only
have a short range. Transmitters must have clear line
of sight to receivers, because this allows the signal to
travel in a straight line between them without being
blocked by solid objects like walls. The signal is also
affected by sunlight. It is often used in remote -control
devices such as television remote control.
5. NEAR -FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)
• NFC uses close proximity RFID (Radio
Frequency Identification) chips. NFC used in
smartphones, payment cards and travel
cards
 Comparing wired and wireless connectivity
Wired Wireless
Cost Cables are cheap if purchasing for a small No need to buy cables
number of devices May need a wireless access point for
multiple connections
Safety Risk of tripping over cables None (though some people worried about
the effects of radiation)
Speed Faster than wireless Slower than wired
Stability Less affected by interference than wireless Affected by interference and objects
Portability Not portable as limited by connecting device Potable within signals range

Mess Can look untidy if lots of cables are used Tidy

Security Most secure Less secure than wired connection
because it is easier to intercept a wireless
signal
Maintenance Using cables and ports continuously over a long None
period of time may damage them
 BROADBAND, MOBILE BROADBAND AND CELLULAR
NETWORK
• Broadband networks provide fast access to the internet
through a connection to an internet service provider
(ISP). They use the fiber optic cable or copper cable
network.
• Mobile broadband provides high- speed wireless
connectivity using 3G and 4G technology to connect to
the mobile phone network, which acts as the user’s ISP.

END
UNIT 2-Chapter 5

NETWORKS
WHAT IS A NETWORK?

•A network is when two or more

computers are connected together
• Using a network, a computer can communicate
with others and share resources such as
hardware, software and data.
 REQUIREMENTS FOR
CONNECTING TO NETWORKS
• In order to connect to a network, computers
need to fulfil certain requirements so that
they all operate using standard protocols

• Protocols are rules that allow the exchange

and transmission of data between devices
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
• A network operating system allows a computer to communicate on a
network.
• It provides additional functionality to a stand-alone operating system,
including:
■ passing usernames and passwords to a server for checking when a
user logins
■ separating user accounts and ensuring that users cannot access each
other's files
■ providing access to network storage and shared resources such as
networked printers.
 HOW DEVICES ARE IDENTIFIED ON A
NETWORK
There are three methods used to identify devices on a
network:
■ Internet Protocol (IP)
■ MAC address
■ Device name.
1. INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)
• An IP address is a unique address that networked devices use
to send data to each other.
• Each piece of data that is sent across a network carries the IP
address of the destination, so that each device in the
network knows where to send it.
• IP addresses can either be assigned by a network
administrator or allocated dynamically by a server running
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Server a
networked Computer that automatically assigns an IP
address to other computers when they join the network
 IP addresses are made up groups of numbers. There are two main
versions of IP in use.

■ IPv4 uses four groups of up to three numbers

separated by full stops
(For example, 192.168.1.1).
■ IPv6 uses eight groups of four hexadecimal
numbers separated by colons
(For example. 2001:0db8:0000:0042: 0000:8a2e: 0370:7334).
2. MAC ADDRESS
• Media access control (MAC) addresses are universally
unique Identifiers given to the network interface card
(NIC).
• MAC addresses are used in devices connected to local
area networks (LANs) using Ethernet, Bluetooth or
Wi-Fi.
• MAC addresses are assigned by the NIC manufacturer
and are generally considered to be fixed addresses.
 USES OF MAC ADDRESS
USE EXAMPLE
Restricting or allowing MAC address filtering checks the MAC address of devices
attempting to gain access to a network and only grants access to
access to a network devices with specified MAC addresses

Identifying a device on a Some WI-FI hotspot only provide free access for a certain length
of time. on a network and they Identity a device using its MAC
network address in order to work out whether it is trying to access the
hotspot for longer than the permitted time
Tracking a device Some companies and organizations track devices (and therefore
their users) by checking which wireless access points have been
accessed by specific MAC address

Assigning 'static' or fixed IP Each time a device connects to a network, it is identified by a

address DHCP server (usually using its MAC address) and gives the same IP
address as before
N/A MAC addresses can be changed through a process called spoofing, which
means using the MAC address of another device.

3. DEVICE NAME
• A device name is a descriptive name that helps users
to identify computers on a network.
• Device names are not used by computers to
communicate With each other as they are not always
unique. This means that they could cause conflicts if
data was to be sent to more than one device with the
same name for processing.
COMPONENTS OF WIRED AND WIRELESS
SYSTEMS

1. CABLES
• Cables are used to connect devices in a wired network.
• Cat5e cables are used for Ethernet connections. These
cables are able to transfer data at 10 Mbit/s. 100
Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s.
• Cat6 cables can be used to transfer data at 10 Gbit/s.
These are more expensive than Cat5e cables and are
usually only used by businesses.
2. WIRELESS ACCESS POINT

• A wireless access point allows devices with Wi-Fi

connectivity to connect to a wired network.
3. SWITCH
• A switch connects devices on a network. It has
ports, each of which can be connected to a
device using a cable. Connecting a wireless
access point to a switch via a cable gives wireless
devices access to the wired network. The switch
makes sure that data sent from any device gets
to the correct device on the network
 4. ROUTER
• A router stores the addresses of all devices that
are connected to it so that it can forward
network traffic to its destination using the
quickest route. Most routers used in homes
include a switch and a wireless access point.
They also act as gateways, connecting the LAN to
the internet. which is a type of WAN.
 5. GATEWAY
• A gateway connects two different types of network. For example. a
LAN is connected to a WAN using a gateway.
6. BOOSTER
• A booster is used to amplify the signal in a
network so that its range can be extended. For
homes and offices, wired Ethernet connections
often have a maximum range of 100 m.
• Wireless signals have limited range, too.
Boosters can be used for both wired and
wireless connections.
 SERVER
• A server is a computer that shares its resources with
connected devices.
• Computers connected to a server are known as
clients.
• Client is a computer connected to a server
• Resources that can be shared by one or more servers
include printers, storage and applications.
AUTHENTICATION SERVER

• An authentication server checks

usernames and passwords.
• When a user successfully logs in, the client
receives an electronic certificate that it can
then use to access various resources,
including applications and storage.
PRINT SERVER

• A print server manages multiple printers at a

time, dealing with print requests from client
computer.
• Print servers can also monitor and process print
requests, making sure that users or departments
can be invoiced for the jobs that they send to
the printers.
 FILE SERVER
•File servers allow users to access shared
and private storage.
APPLICATION SERVER

• Application servers provide clients with

access to applications that can be run
directly from the server.
WEB SERVER

•Web servers process requests for data

made via Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP). Together, all of the content
stored on all web servers is known as
the World Wide Web.
CONNECTING TO AND USING
THE INTERNET
• Users must be connected to the internet in order
to utilize the online services offered by servers
and data centers.
 INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER-ISP

• To connect to the internet, users need to subscribe

to an ISP.
• ISPs provide access via mobile telephone networks
and landline telephone networks.
• Commercial ISPs charge subscription fees for access
to the internet.
WEB BROWSER

• A web browser is a type of software application used

to request and display information. stored on web
servers.
Examples of web browsers
• Mozilla Firefox,
• Google Chrome,
• Internet Explorer
 SEARCH ENGINE

•A search engine provides users with a

way to find information in web pages
stored on web servers. Users enter
keywords that describe the information
they want to find.
 FILTER SOFTWARE

• Filter software prevents users from accessing

inappropriate information.
• When a user tries to access a web page, the
address (URL) and/or the contents of the web
page are compared against two lists of URLs
and keywords stored
 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LANs)

• A LAN is a network contained to a small area,

such as a home or office.
• Computers in a network can be connected
using one of two different models:
a) PEER-TO-PEER
b) CLIENT-SERVER.
 PEER-TO-PEER
• Computers in a peer- to-peer network share their
resources with other computers in the network, but they do
not access servers.
 BENEFITS OF USING LANS

• Access to shared peripherals

• Access to shared storage and data
• Flexible access (that is, being able to access peripherals,
storage and data from any connected device)
• Media streaming (including movies, music and gaming)
• Communication (that is, being able to send messages and
files to others on the network)
• Shared access to the internet
 CLIENT-SERVER NETWORKS

• Some networks use servers. A network that uses servers

and clients is called a client-server network.
 BENEFITS OF USING CLIENT-SERVER NETWORKS

• Control of user access rights: Users, or groups of users, can be given access to
some resources (such as storage or printers) and restricted from accessing others.
• Centralized administration: Resources and user accounts can be managed by an
individual, or individual group of servers and administrators
• Centralized backup: User data is protected from loss because backups can be
automated for all users.
• Shared software: Application servers can provide access to shared software.
Some servers can provide access to operating systems.
• Shared storage and file access: The amount of storage available to users can be
managed centrally. Sharing storage means that users can make files available to
others.
• Roaming profiles: This is the ability to log into any computer in an office and see
your settings and files.
 SECURING DATA ON NETWORKS
Methods used to secure data on networks

1. Usernames and passwords

• Users log in to computers on a network to access centrally
managed resources.
• Without the correct login details, users cannot access the
networks and its resources.
• An authentication server can be used to manage the
authentication of a user to a range of network resource and
services.
 2. Firewalls

• A firewall is used at the gateway to a network.

• It controls the network traffic to and from a
network, particularly the traffic from the internet.
• Firewalls prevent unauthorized users from accessing
network devices and resources, such as storage.
• Firewalls are available as hardware and software,
which can be installed on computers to prevent
attacks from within a network.
3.Encryption

• Encryption is the process of encoding, scrambling or

jumbling data so that unauthorized users are
prevented from being able to understand it.
• One method used to encrypt text is called a Caesar
cipher.
• This method shifts each letter to the left by a set
number of places.
There are two types of
encryptions:
A Caesar cipher is quite easy to guess, but
most modern encryption is much more
secure.
a. Symmetric key encryption
b. Public key encryption
• Symmetric key encryption uses the same
key at both ends of the process, meaning
that the same key is used to encrypt and
decrypt the data.
• Public key encryption uses two
mathematically related keys called a key
pair. One key is used to encrypt the data and
a different key is used to decrypt it.
File access rights

• File access rights are also known as file

permissions. They can be set for individual
files, folders or drives, and they ensure that
users are either allowed to read only or
allowed to read and write to the file, folder
or drive.
Backups
• A backup is a copy of one or more files. The
backup or backups are usually stored on a
different storage device to the original file
 Types of backups
1. Full backups
• The most basic and complete type of backup
operation is a full backup. As the name implies, this
type of backup makes a copy of all data to a storage
device, such as a disk or tape.
2. Incremental backups
• An incremental backup operation will result in copying
only the data that has changed since the last backup
operation of any type.
3. Differential backups
• A differential backup operation is similar to
an incremental the first time it is performed,
in that it will copy all data changed from the
previous full backup, and incremental back
up.
WIRELESS ENCRYPTION
PROTOCOL (WEP)
• It is easier to intercept data in a wireless
network than in a wired network. Wireless
Encryption Protocol (WEP) is used to secure the
wireless transfer of data. It is the least secure
wireless data encryption method. This is because
every device on the wireless network uses the
same key for every transfer.
WI-FI PROTECTED ACCESS (WPA)
• This is a security protocol designed to
provide better Encryption than WEP. WPA
generates a new key for each device on the
wireless network. New keys are also
provided for each packet of data that is
sent.
VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK
(VPN)
A VPN provides access to a private LAN from a remote location.
An individual might use a VPN to:
• Access their employer's network when working from home
• Make secure payments
• Prevent surveillance of and access to their web activity.
• access computers in a different geographical location, perhaps to
avoid
• Local restrictions on access to web content (such as due to censorship
or Geolocation rights management)
Transaction logs
• All network activity can be recorded in a log file. Although
this does not directly secure network data, a transaction log
can help to identify which computers and network devices
have been accessed.
• This can allow administrators to identify any unusual activity
that might be a threat to data security.
Log is a record of events
Transaction is the exchange of data