§1.

3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics (Cont'd)
• 4. Sound speed and Mach number
– Sound speed in fluid
dp
c
d
– In air, sound propagation is seen as adiabatic process, ie.
p- const. Then
c  γRT
 ——Ratio of specific heats
– R——Gas constant
– T——Absolute temperature

1
 4. Sound speed and M (Cont'd)

– Mach Number
v
M 
c
– M>1 ， Supersonic
– M<1 ， Subsonic
– M≈1 ， Transonic

2
 §1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics (Cont'd)
• 5. Stagnation parameters of flow and
aerodynamic functions
– From above energy equations, flow
kinetic energy (speed), enthalpy and
pressure potential energy can be
converted from one to others.

v  h  and p
3
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
• If flow stagnates (v=0) as isentropic
process, the kinetic energy is
converted totally to enthalpy. It is
called stagnation enthalpy, or total
enthalpy ：
2
* v
h c p T 
(1-38) 2
4
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
2 2 2
* pv v v
h u   h  c pT 
 2 2 2
• u: internal energy
• p/: potential energy
• T: disordered movement
• v: ordered movement
5
 Ordered vs disordered

6
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Corresponding stagnation temperature
or total temperature:2
* v
T T  (1-39)
2c p

cp 
 1
R c  γRT
– Since
T *
 1 2
1  M
T 2
（ 1-40 ）
7
 Stagnation process
– It’s isentropic, so


p  v
*
 T
*   1

   
p *
v  T 
 

8
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Since stagnation is isentropic, so:

  1 2
*
p  1
 1  M  (1-41)
p  2 
1
 *
  1 2  1
 1  M  (1-42)
  2 

p*——Total Pressure
*——Total Density
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 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– According to the 3 equations above, for a
given gas flow, the ratios of the total
parameters and steady parameters are
function of Mach number.
– When air flows isentropically in a tube
without energy added, the total
parameters (Enthalpy, temperature,
pressure and density) remain
unchanged.

10
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
• Critical sound speed ccr (in tunnel)

– v increases along the tunnel (ex. Laval nozzle)

– When v increases, T decreases. Sound speed
c is function of T, it goes down.
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 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
• Critical sound speed ccr (in tunnel)

– When v=c, ie M=1, this c has special meaning,

called critical sound speed ccr. This section is
called critical section and it is the smallest
section in the tunnel, also called throat.
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 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
• Critical sound speed ccr (in tunnel)

– ccr is a parameter of the isentropic flow of

the tunnel.
– ccr is constant in this kind of flow.
13
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Definition of speed coefficient in a
section
v
 (1-43)
ccr
– From (1-40) T*  1 2
1  M , we obtain
T 2
2
Tcr  T*
 1

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 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– And
2 *
Tcr  T
 1

2
2
c 
cr RT *
 1

2
ccr  RT *
 1

15
 C and Ccr
C Ccr
Apply to local tunnel
Depending on T T*
Speed ratio M 
Relation see M
following

16
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Using 2
c 2 RT RT *
2
c 
cr
 1
T*  1 2
1  M
T 2
2
c
in M 2 2 cr2 , we obtain
c
 1 2 2 2
M 
2  2 andM 2    1
 1  1 2
1 M2 1 
2  1
17
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Change (1-40), (1-41) & (1-42) to
T   1 2
 ( )  *  1    (1-46)
T   1 

p   1 2  1
 ( )   1    (1-47)
  1 
*
p
1
   1 2  1
 ( )  *  1   
   1  (1-48)

 and  three aerodynamic

func
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 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Flow density function
q m  vA kg/s
1
  1 2  1
    1 
*
 
  1 
2
v ccr  RT *
 1
1
  1 2  1 2
v    1 
*
   RT *

  1   1
19
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Flow function (Q curve)
1 1
v Acr    1   1   1 2  1
q ( )       1   
( v) cr A  2    1 

(1-49)
– q() presents relative flow density in
section A to the critical section even
though the critical section does not exist.
– Ratio of the sections
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 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– Using flow density function and total
parameters, mass flow can be expressed:

p Aq ( )
*
qm K （ 1-
*
50 ） T
where ：  1
 2   1 kg.K
K  
R   1 J

Air 0.04042, gas 0.03968

21
Q curve
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
p * Aq ( )
qm K
*
T
– Applying in any section
– Using total parameters
– 5 parameters
– 4 knowns can resolve another
– Then find all parameters including static
parameters

23
 5. Stagnation parameters and
functions (Cont'd)
– At the critical section, q()=1.
*
p Acr
qm K
*
T

24
 §1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
• 6. Equation of momentum
– Based on second Newton’s law
– Momentum change of an object at a
period of time is equal to the applied
force
– In aircraft
 engines
 
F q m (v 2  v1 )

25
 §1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
• 7. Momentum Theorem
– Similar with above equation, but
rotational movement

 
  d  
r F   r mv 
dt

26
 §1.3 Fundamental equations of
aerodynamics
• 8. Shock waves and expansion waves
– Ex. The trace when a boat goes with a
high speed.

M>1
M=1
27
 8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Cont’d)
– Or bridge pier when water flows.
– Accumulation of disturbances

M>1
M=1
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 8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Cont’d)
– Intakes: Fig (a) normal shock wave, due to
intake’s form; Fig (b) oblique shock
wave 。 The angle  depends on Mach
number of the flow and geometrical angle of
the cone .

29
 8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Cont’d)
– When M reduces or  increases,
will increase until the wave
becomes a normal shock wave.

30
 8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Cont’d)
– When supersonic flow passes
through the shock wave, sharply
speed decreases, pressure and
temperature increase.
– After normal wave, the flow is
certainly subsonic. But after oblique
shock wave, it is still supersonic.

31
 8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Cont’d)
– Strength of the shock wave is
described by pressure ratio of after
and before. It is only function of M
for normal shock wave, the greater
M, the stronger the wave.
– For oblique shock wave, the greater
M and , the stronger the wave.

32
 8. Shock waves and expansion
waves (Cont’d)
– Supersonic flow passing through the shock
wave is NOT isentropic process. Partial
mechanical energy Irreversibly changes to
heat, and total pressure decreases.
– This is shock wave loss, and usually total
pressure recovery  is used to present the
loss. It is function of the wave strength, the
stronger the wave, the greater the loss.

33
 8. Expansion waves (Cont’d)
– When a supersonic
air flows to a lower
pressure zone, there
are expansion waves
due to air continuous
expansion.
– In Fig, turbine
cascade passage. In
the throat A—A,
critical section, flow
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becomes supersonic.
 8. Expansion waves (Cont’d)
– In downstream, it is
low pressure zone.
The flow accelerates,
it passes through a
series of expansion
waves, and speed
increases,
temperature and
pressure decrease.

35
 8. Expansion waves (Cont’d)
– The flow changes
also the direction. The
bigger the turned
angle, the more
expansion and flow
parameters change
more.

36
 8. Expansion waves (Cont’d)
– The turned angle
depends on exit
pressure. The lower
the pressure, the
bigger the angle.
– If pressure increases,
expansion waves may
disappear and the
37
flow may be subsonic.
 Summary

• §1.1 First law of thermodynamics

– Gas, state parameters, gas constants, processes
and parameters
– Enthalpy and first law
• §1.2 Second law of thermodynamics
– Entropy and second law
– Cycle and efficiency
• §1.3 Aerodynamics fundamental equations
– Fundamental equations
– Sound speed and Mach number
– Stagnation parameters and aerodynamic functions
– Shockwaves and expansion waves
38