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DATA COMMUNICATION
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 Data communications refers to the transmission of

the digital data between two or more computers.
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as
nodes) connected by communication links.
 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.
 A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
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 Components of Data Communication

 A communication system is made up of the following
components:
1.Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be
transmitted from one person to another. It could be a text
file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2.Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It
can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video
camera, or workstation, etc.
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 Components of Data Communication

3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer,
telephone mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication
channels are the medium that connect two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it
should be understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless.
For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi
and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.
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 Network Application:
• Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
• Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
• Information sharing by using Web
• Video conferences
• Parallel computing
• Instant messaging
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 Network Architecture
 Network Architecture is defined as the physical and
logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and
media of the transmission of data.
 The two types of network architectures are used:
• Peer-To-Peer network
• Client/Server network
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 Peer-To-Peer network
 Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the
computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
 Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments,

usually up to 10 computers.
 Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.

 Special permissions are assigned to each computer for

sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the

computer with the resource is down.
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 Peer-To-Peer network
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 Peer-To-Peer network
 Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop
working.
 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

 Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the
centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the
data is different in different locations.
 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
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 Client/Server network
 Client/Server network is a network model designed for the
end users called clients, to access the resources such as
songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
 A server is responsible for managing all the resources such

as files, directories, printer, etc.

 All the clients communicate with each other through a

server.
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 Client/Server network
 For example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2,
then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to
initiate its communication with the client 2.
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 Advantages Of Client/Server network:

A Client/Server network contains the centralized system.
Therefore, we can back up the data easily.
 A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that

improves the overall performance of the whole system.

 Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server

administers the shared resources.

 It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
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 Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

 Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server
with large memory.
 A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide

the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very

high.
 It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all

the resources.
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 Type of data
communication
 The data communication is
divided into three types:
 Simplex Communication

 Half Duplex
communication

 Full-duplex communication
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 Network Criteria
 Performance
 Depends on Network Elements
 Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
 Reliability
 Failure rate of network components
 Measured in terms of availability/robustness
 Security
 Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
 Errors
 Malicious users
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 Physical Topology
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 Mesh Topology:
 Mesh technology is an arrangement
of the network in which computers
are interconnected with each other
through various redundant
connections.
 There are multiple paths from one
computer to another computer.
 It does not contain the switch, hub
or any central computer which acts
as a central point of
communication.
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 Mesh Topology:
 Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations
where communication failures are a critical concern.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

 Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:

Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

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 Advantages of Mesh topology:

 Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.
 Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the
communication between other devices.
 Disadvantages of Mesh topology
 Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such
as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
 Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.
 Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces
the efficiency of the network.
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 Star Topology
 Star topology is an arrangement of the network in
which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch, or a central computer.
 The central computer is known as a server, and
the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
 Network cables are used to connect the
computers.
 Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection
devices in a physical star topology.
 Star topology is the most popular topology in
network implementation.
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 Advantages of Star topology

 Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star
topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager
has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations
are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the
problem.
 Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star
topology are automatically accommodated.
 Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with
its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.
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 Advantages of Star topology

 Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar
technology as its tools are cost-effective.
 Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations

can be added to the open ports on the hub.

 Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective

as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

 High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx

100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular

Star topology networks.
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 Bus Topology:
 The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
 Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
 When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
 The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.
 The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
 The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.
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 Bus Topology
 Advantages of Bus topology:
 Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
 Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-
based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
 Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
 Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
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 Disadvantages of Bus topology:

 Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of
cabling.
 Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the
cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.
 Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the
signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down
the network.
 Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
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 Ring Topology:
 Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected
ends.
 The node that receives the message from the previous

computer will retransmit to the next node.

 The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

 The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an

endless loop.
 It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to

other node and having no termination point.

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 Ring Topology
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 Ring Topology:
 The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
 Advantages of Ring topology:
 Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the
network without bringing the network down.
 Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for
network operation and monitoring are available.
 Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
 Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication
system is not dependent on the single host computer.
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 Disadvantages of Ring topology:

 Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment
to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then
it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
 Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
 Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network
would slow down the network.
 Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the
number of nodes. Adding new devices increases the
communication delay.
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 Categories of Networks
 Local Area Networks (LANs)
 Shortdistances
 Designed to provide local interconnectivity

 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

 Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)
 Long distances
 Provide connectivity over large areas
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 Categories of Networks
 LAN(Local Area Network)
• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each
other in a small area such as a building, or office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through
a communication medium such as a twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in the Local Area
Network.
• Local Area Network provides higher security.
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 Categories of Networks
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger
network.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private
industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM,
ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.
• It has a higher range than the Local Area Network(LAN).
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 Categories of Networks
 WAN(Wide Area Network)
• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite a bigger network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it
spans over a large geographical area through a telephone line,
fiber optic cable, or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WANs in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business,
government, and education.
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 Internetwork
• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network
LANs or WAN or computer network segments are connected
using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing
scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
• An interconnection between public, private, commercial,
industrial, or government computer networks can also be
defined as internetworking.
• The reference model used for internetworking is Open
System Interconnection(OSI).
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 Layered Architecture
 We use the concept of layers in
our daily life.
 As an example, let us consider
two friends who communicate
through postal mail.
 The process of sending a letter
to a friend would be complex if
there were no services
available from the post office
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 Layered Architecture (THE OSI MODEL)

 The main aim of layered architecture is to divide the design
into small pieces.
 Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to
provide a full set of services to manage are implemented.
Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the
other layers.
 It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides
interaction between subsystems.
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 THE OSI MODEL

 Established in 1947, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to a
worldwide agreement on international
standards.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects
of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
 It was first introduced in the late 1970s
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 THE OSI MODEL

 The interaction
between layers in the
OSI model
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 THE OSI MODEL

 An exchange using the OSI
model
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 Physical layer:
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 Physical layer:
 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from
one node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 Functions of a Physical layer:
 Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
 Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is a simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signals: It determines the type of signal used for transmitting the information.
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 Data-Link Layer:
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 Data-Link Layer:
 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
 It defines the format of the data on the network.
 It provides reliable and efficient communication between two or
more devices.
 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device
that resides on a local network.
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 Data-Link Layer:
• It contains two sub-layers:
• Logical Link Control Layer
• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer.
• It also provides flow control.
• Media Access Control Layer
• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
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 Data-Link Layer:
 Functions of the Data-link layer
• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream
into packets known as Frames.
• The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.

• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the

frame that contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted
to the destination address mentioned in the header.
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 Functions of the Data-link layer

• Flow Control: It is the technique through which the constant data rate is

maintained on both sides so that no data get corrupted..

• Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC

(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which

is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer.

• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same

communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to

determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
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 Functions of the Data-link layer

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 Network Layer;
 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, and tracks the
location of devices on the network.
 It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of
service, and other factors.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer
and used to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as
Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
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 Network Layer
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 Functions of Network Layer:

• Internetworking: Internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different
devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the
device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and
it determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from
source to the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the data from the upper
layer and converts them into packets. This process is known as
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
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 Functions of Network Layer:

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 Transport Layer:
 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are
transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the
data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them
into smaller units known as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a
point-to-point connection between source and destination to
deliver the data reliably.
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 Transport Layer:
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 Functions of Transport Layer:

• Service-point addressing: The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or port
address.
• The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from
one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the
transport layer is to transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer
receives the message from the upper layer, it divides the message
into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned a sequence
number that uniquely identifies each segment.
• When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on its sequence numbers.
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 Functions of Transport Layer:

• Connection control: The transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service.
• A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and
they all travel on different routes to reach the destination.
• A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at
the destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented
service, all the packets travel in a single route.
• Flow control: The transport layer is also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
• Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that the message reach at the destination without
any error.
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 Functions of Transport Layer:

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 Session Layer:
• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronize the
interaction between communicating devices.
 Functions of Session layer:
• Dialog control: The session layer acts as a dialog controller that
creates a dialog between two processes or we can say that it allows
the communication between two processes which can be either half-
duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: The session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle
of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again
from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.
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 Session Layer:
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 Presentation Layer:
• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax
and semantics of the information exchanged between the
two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts
the data from one presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
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 Presentation Layer:
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 Functions of Presentation layer:

 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information
in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. Different
computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer
handles the interoperability between the different encoding methods.
It converts the data from the sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into a receiver-dependent
format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another
form and sends the resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data,
i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression
is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.
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 Application layer:
• An application layer serves as a window for users and
application processes to access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource
allocation, etc.
• This layer provides network services to the end-users.
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 Functions of Application layer:

• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An
application layer allows a user to access the files in a
remote computer, retrieve the files from a computer, and
manage the files in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility
for email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides distributed
database sources and is used to provide global information
about various objects.
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 TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network
interface, internetworking, and transport functions that
correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model.
• Remaining three layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules,
and each of them provides specific functionality.
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 TCP/IP model
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References
 W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, (10e), Pearson Education,
2014.
 B. A. Forouzan, Data Communications & Networking, (5e), McGraw Hill, 2013.
 D. P. Bertsekas, R. G. Gallager, Data Networks, (2e), Prentice Hall of India,
2011.
 A. S. Tenenbaum, Computer Networks, (5e), Prentice Hall of India, 2008.
 L. L. Peterson, B. S. Davie, Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, (5e),
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2011.