I BSFS FORENSIC SCIENCE

02ABSFS24111
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO
FORENSIC SCIENCE
 TOPICS COVERED IN THE UNIT
 SUB UNIT 1.1: Basics of Forensic Science Historical Forensic
Practices in India and abroad, Traditional Methods of Crime
Investigation and techniques; Role of Local Law Enforcement-
Scope, need and function in Forensic Science, Classification of
Evidences and its importance.
 SUB UNIT 1.2: Divisions and sub-divisions of Forensic Science and
its significance, Hierarchical set up of various Government Forensic
Science Laboratories. Evolution of Forensic Science Laboratories,
Basic services of crime laboratories. Qualification and Duties of
Forensic scientists. Ethics in Forensic Science.
 SUB UNIT 1.3: Basic principles of Forensic Science - Principles of
forensic science, Frye rule and Daubert standards. Legal and
Scientific requirements.
 SUB UNIT 1.4: Agencies involved in crime detection and
investigation- Government Examiners of Questioned Documents
(GEQD), Fingerprint Bureaus (FPB), National Crime Records
Bureau(NCRB), Police & Detective Training Schools (DTS),
Bureau of Police Research& Development (BPR& D); Central and
State Police Organization(CPOs), Scene of Crime officer(SOCO),
Police Training Schools, Dog Squad, Bomb Detection and Defusal
Squad; RAW, CBI, INTERPOL and NIA.
Learning objectives
 Understand the historical evolution of forensic practices in India and
globally.
 Recognize the role and scope of local law enforcement in forensic
science. Recognize the qualifications and duties required of forensic
scientists.
 Learn about the various divisions and sub-divisions within forensic
science and their roles. Understand the hierarchical structure of
government forensic science laboratories.
 Grasp the fundamental principles of forensic science.
 Understand the Frye rule and Daubert standards and their implications.
 Identify various agencies involved in crime detection and investigation.
 Understand the roles and functions of different national and
international investigative agencies.
Learning Outcome
After completing the module, you will be able to

 Describe the historical developments in forensic science both in India and

abroad.
 List and explain traditional crime investigation techniques.
 Outline the hierarchical structure of forensic science laboratories in the
government sector.
 Understand and be able to explain the Frye rule and Daubert standards.
 Comprehend the legal and scientific requirements necessary for the
admissibility of forensic evidence in court.
 Understand the specific functions and responsibilities of agencies like
GEQD, FPB, NCRB, RAW, CBI, INTERPOL, and NIA.
 Gain knowledge about the training programs and schools dedicated to law
enforcement and detective work.
INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE

 What is forensic science?

 The word forensic comes from the Latin term forēnsis,
meaning "of or before the forum". The history of the term
originates in Roman times, when a criminal charge meant
presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the
forum.
 Definition- Forensics is defined as the application of scientific
methods and techniques to matters under investigation by a court
of law.
 It’s also known as “CRIMINALISTICS.”
 Why is forensic science used?
 Forensic science assists in the investigation of crimes by
examining physical evidence, and applying the results of
these scientific examinations to courts of law. The results
of examinations can determine what happened at the scene
of a crime and who was there. This can help the investigators
with their work.
LOCARD’S PRINCIPLE OF EXHANGE
 Dr. Edmond Locard (13 December 1877 – 4 May 1966) was a
French criminologist, the pioneer in forensic science who became
known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France". He formulated the basic
principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace". This
became known as Locard’s principle of exchange.
 HISTORY OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
The application of science and technology to the detection and
investigation of crime and administration of justice is not new to
India. Its detailed reference is found in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra,’
which was written about 2300 years ago. Indians studied various
patterns of the papillary lines, thousands of years ago. The Indians
knew for long that the handprints, known as the Tarija’, were
inimitable. The use of fingerprints as signatures by illiterate people
in India, introduced centuries ago, was considered by some people
as ceremonial only, till it was scientifically proved that
identification from fingerprints was infallible.
 CHEMICAL EXAMINER’S
LABORATORIES
During the nineteenth century, when the cases of death due to poisoning posed a
problem to the law enforcement agencies, a need was felt for isolating, detecting
and estimating various poisons absorbed in the human system. The first Chemical
Examiner’s Laboratory was, therefore, set up for this purpose at the then Madras
Presidency, under the Department of Health, during 1849. Later, similar
laboratories were set up at Calcutta (1853), followed by one each at Agra (1864)
and Bombay (1870). These laboratories were equipped to handle toxicological
analysis of viscera, biological analysis of stains of blood, semen, etc. and chemical
analysis of food, drugs, and various excisable materials to provide scientific
support to the criminal justice delivery system within their limited means. These
laboratories also provided analytical facilities to the neighboring States and Union
Territories.
 ANTHROPOMETRIC BUREAU

While some progress was made in the identification of poisons, the

identification of people, specifically criminals, was still being done in a
rather haphazard manner. Policemen would try to memorize convict’s
face so that they could recognize him if he got involved in another crime
later. With the introduction of Photography, the Criminal Investigation
Department (CID) maintained records of every known criminal
including a detailed description of his appearance. With the invention of
Bertillon’s anthropometric system in 1878, India, along with the other
countries of the world, adapted Bertillon’s system of personnel
identification and thus an Anthropometric Bureau, for maintaining
anthropometric records of criminals, was established in 1892 at Calcutta.
 FINGER PRINT BUREAU
William Herschel, the Collector of the District of Hooghly (Bengal)
found that markings on the fingertips of a person never changed
during his lifetime. Herschel applied his knowledge and skill in
devising a system of registration of finger or thumb impressions of
native contractors to safeguard the interests of the Government
against the repudiation of contracts by them. Thereafter, he
extended his registration procedure to prison regulations for
identifying convicted criminals. In 1877, Herschel sought the
consent of his superior officers in putting his ideas into practice,
but did not succeed. In 1891, Edward Richard Henry’s
appointment, the Inspector General of Police in Bengal, introduced
the thumb impressions in the record slips, containing
Henry employed few selected Indian police officers, viz. Khan Bahadur Azizul
Huq and Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose to work under his general supervision
till the classification was evolved, which remains the basic system even to-day. It
was Khan Bahadur Azizul Huq who evolved a mathematical formula to
supplement Henry’s idea of sorting slips in 1024 pigeon holes, based on fingerprint
patterns. Rai Bahadur Hem Chandra Bose made further contribution to the
fingerprint science by evolving an extended systern of sub-classification, a
telegraphic code for finger impression and a system of single-digit classification.

Henry approached the Government to seek approval for replacing the

anthropometric data by fingerprints for the identification of habitual criminals.
Government readily agreed, and the first fingerprint bureau in the world was
officially declared open at Calcutta in July 1897, although the collection of record
slips had started a few years earlier. Thus, the personnel identification solely on the
basis of fingerprints commenced in India.
 DEPARTMENT OF EXPLOSIVES

The foundation of the Department of Explosives was laid when

the first chief inspector of explosives was appointed in the year
1898, with his headquarters at Nagpur. Later, five regional
offices at Calcutta, Bombay, Agra, Madras and Gwalior, and
three sub-offices at Shivkashi. Gomia and Asallsol were
opened. They developed competence to provide scientific clues
in respect of explosives as well as the possible causes of
explosions. Their expertise came handy in police investigations
in the crimes related to explosions and for evolving various
provisions under the Explosives & Petroleum Act.
 GOVERNMENT EXAMINER OF
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT(GEQD),
SHIMLA
The British Government of Bengal felt the necessity of identifying the
handwritings on the secret documents connected with the Indian
independence movement and, therefore, created the post of Government
Handwriting Expert of Bengal. Mr. CR Hardless, the then Superintendent
in the A.G.’s office in Bengal, was appointed to this post in 1904. This set-
up was shifted to Shimla in the year 1906 and was placed under the
control of the Director, CID. A post of Handwriting Expert for the
Government of India was created and Mr. CR Hardless was appointed to
this post. He was replaced by Mr. F Brewester, a police officer from the
West Bengal CID, and was designated as the Government Examiner of
Questioned Documents (GEQD).
ROLE OF LOCAL LAW ENFORCEMENT
 Protection to society
 Crime Scene Management
 Evidence Collection
 Collaboration with Forensic Experts
 Investigative Support
 Testimony in Court
 Training and Education
 Aiding in Justice
 TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CRIME
INVESTIGATION
1. Securing the Crime Scene
• Informal Securing: Crime scenes were often secured by local village heads
(often called mukhiya or patwari) or by the kotwal (a local police officer), but the
process was not as standardized as it is today. Often, the crime scene would be
guarded by local villagers.
2. Use of Village Elders and Informants
• Community Involvement: The local community played a significant role in
crime investigations. Elders and influential individuals in the village were often
consulted, and they sometimes conducted informal inquiries before law
enforcement got involved.
• Informal Networks: Information was often gathered through informal networks,
including the use of local informants or spies who were familiar with the area
and its people.
3. Primitive Evidence Collection
• Basic Methods: Evidence collection was largely manual, and there were no
standardized procedures. Investigators relied on visual inspection and the
collection of obvious physical evidence, such as weapons or items left at the
scene.
• Superstitious Beliefs: In some cases, traditional beliefs and superstitions
influenced the interpretation of evidence. For instance, certain types of injuries
or deaths might have been attributed to supernatural causes rather than foul
play.
4. British Colonial Influence
• Introduction of Scientific Methods: The British colonial administration did
introduce some scientific methods, such as the use of fingerprinting and early
forensic medicine, but these were not widespread, especially in rural areas.
• Police Structure: The police force in India was structured along the lines of
British law enforcement, but many of the methods remained basic and were
adapted to local conditions and resources.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF EVIDENCE
1. Direct vs. Circumstantial Evidence
2. Physical vs. Documentary Evidence
3. Real vs. Demonstrative Evidence
4. Admissible vs. Inadmissible Evidence
5. Primary vs. Secondary Evidence
6. Testimonial Evidence
 IMPORTANCE OF EVIDENCE

1. Foundation of Justice: Evidence is crucial for establishing facts and ensuring that justice
is served. It helps courts to determine the truth and make informed decisions.
2. Burden of Proof: In criminal cases, the prosecution must prove the defendant's guilt
"beyond a reasonable doubt," which is only possible through strong, reliable evidence. In
civil cases, evidence is used to establish claims based on the "preponderance of evidence."
3. Corroboration: Evidence corroborates or disproves other pieces of evidence, ensuring
that decisions are based on a holistic view of all the available information.
4. Protects Rights: Proper use of evidence safeguards the rights of both the accused and the
victims, ensuring that decisions are fair and based on factual information rather than
assumptions or biases.
5. Prevents Miscarriages of Justice: Reliable and admissible evidence is key to avoiding
wrongful convictions or unjust acquittals, thereby maintaining public trust in the legal
system.
6. Guides Legal Procedures: Evidence dictates the flow of legal proceedings, influencing
what witnesses are called, what questions are asked, and what legal arguments are made.
 DIVISIONS AND SUB-DIVISIONS OF
FORENSIC SCIENCE AND ITS
SIGNIFICANCE
1. Forensic Biology and Serology: This branch deals with biological evidence like tissues, blood,
muscles, semen, hair, saliva, pollen, urine, etc. Various tests like colorimetric analysis and
crystallization tests are used for investigation along with technologies like spectrometry and
transmission electron microscope. It is one of the most important branches of forensics as it deals
with living beings.
2. Forensic Chemistry: When cases that involve chemicals and chemical reactions are investigated,
forensic chemistry is used. It deals with all kinds of adulterations and examines the evidence to make
inferences regarding the case. The adulterations that it deals with are food, liquor, petroleum,
explosive materials, alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages, carbonated drinks, packaged juices, and
drugs. Apart from these it also examines the adulteration of chemicals and compounds like RDX,
PETN, HMX, Nitrogylcerine, Nitrocellulose, Sulphur Oxides, Fuses, Cordite sticks, etc.
3. Forensic Physics: The branch of Forensics that deals with physical evidence is known as Forensic
Physics. Physical evidence like fibers, glass, cement, tool marks, paint, building materials, soil, gait
pattern, shoe print, footprint, etc is examined under this branch. Experts visit the crime site and
collect evidence from there to help in the investigation.
4. Forensic Anthropology: It is a field of physical anthropology that deals
with skeletal remains, skeletonized bodies, and bones. Sometimes, the
crimes are so brutal that it becomes quite difficult to identify the victims
and here forensic anthropology comes into the picture. Forensic
Scientists help to investigate the crime by using scientific techniques.
They examine the dead remains of humans and animals and thus give an
estimated time of death.
5. Forensic Odontology: Odontologists use dental records in identification
of the dead or missing people. They study the bite marks, dental
impressions, and dental X-rays and present them as legal evidence in
court. Teeth are hard structures and hence can tolerate huge physical
impacts thus they are preserved and used for identification. In case of a
plane crash when the entire body is damaged the arrangement of teeth
being a unique feature helps in the identification.
6. Toxicology: Under this, the students learn how toxic chemicals affect humans, animals,
and the surrounding environment. They examine the involvement of any kind of poisonous
substance involved in the crime mystery. Sometimes it becomes quite difficult to conclude
whether the death is caused by overdose or it is a planned murder. In such cases,
toxicology helps in analyzing the cause of death by examining blood, urine, food, and
beverages that the deceased had before his demise.
7. Questioned Document: This branch of forensics deals with suspicious documents
involved in both civil and criminal cases. The suspicious documents include forged
signatures on documents or cheques, counterfeit currency, suicide letters, anonymous
letters associated with the cases, forged passports, damaged documents, printed or xeroxed
documents, etc. Apart from these documents, the examination of handwriting analysis is
also done under this branch.
8. Forensic Ballistic: This branch deals with the analysis of evidence related to arms and
ammunition like pistols, bullets, revolvers, rifles, primers, pellets, propellants, fired bullets
and cartridge cases, residues of the gunshot, and marks on ammunition such as pin marks.
The experts conclude which weapon was used in the crime, its distance from the incident
site, velocity, and angle of firing, and ultimately reveals the identity of the shooter as well.
9. Digital Forensics: With the growth of digitalization, crimes are also traced to
digital or electronic forms. Digital forensics majorly deals with cyber crimes such as
phishing, malware attacks, pornography, and stalking. It helps in the examination of
the digital evidence that includes computers, mobile phones, hard disks, USB
drives, and other electronic devices. Digital forensics majorly deals with cyber
crimes and digital evidence that need to be presented in a court of law.
10. Forensic Psychology: When science is linked with psychology in solving criminal
and civil cases, it becomes Forensic Psychology. Experts assist the police in
criminal profiling by studying crimes and criminals. They carry out interrogation
and counseling of people involved in crime and thus make inferences about the
personality traits of the criminals. Various psychological and psychometric tests like
Polygraph tests, Narco Analysis, Brain mapping, etc are done under forensic
psychologists.
11. Forensic Accounting: Crimes are not only those acts that cause physical harm to
someone, instead they involve all kinds of intended crimes. Forensic accountants
help the investigating officers in cases where financial and accounting frauds are
involved. These crimes can be committed in a company, financial institution, or any
similar entity. Due to the rise in such cases, many corporate companies have
introduced a separate post for this purpose and are paying them well enough as
 ETHICS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE
1. Impartiality and Objectivity:
• Unbiased Analysis: Forensic scientists must remain impartial and objective,
ensuring that their findings are based solely on the evidence without influence from
external pressures, such as law enforcement or legal teams.
• Avoiding Conflicts of Interest: They should disclose any potential conflicts of
interest that could compromise their objectivity.
2. Accuracy and Precision:
• Methodological Rigor: Ensuring that all tests and analyses are conducted with the
highest standards of accuracy and precision, using validated methods and properly
calibrated equipment.
• Transparent Reporting: Providing clear, accurate, and comprehensive reports that
accurately reflect the findings without exaggeration or omission.
3. Confidentiality:
• Protecting Information: Forensic scientists must maintain the confidentiality of
sensitive information, including personal data of victims, suspects, and case details,
only sharing it with authorized individuals.
4. Integrity in Testimony:
• Honesty in Court: When testifying in court, forensic scientists must present their
findings truthfully and avoid overstepping their expertise or making speculative
statements.
• Avoiding Misrepresentation: They must avoid exaggerating the certainty of their
findings and clearly communicate the limitations of the forensic evidence.
5. Responsibility to the Profession:
• Continuous Learning: Forensic scientists have an ethical obligation to engage in
lifelong learning, staying updated with advancements in their field.
• Mentorship and Training: They should contribute to the training and mentorship
of new forensic scientists, promoting high ethical standards within the profession.
6. Responsibility to Justice:
• Exonerating the Innocent: Forensic scientists must be committed to the pursuit of
truth, which includes providing evidence that might exonerate innocent
individuals.
• Accuracy in Criminal Investigations: Ensuring that their work supports the fair
and accurate resolution of criminal cases, aiding in the proper administration of
 FRYE RULE
 In 1923, the first attempt has been made in US to develop a coherent test for the
admissibility of scientific evidence in the court of law by issuing a landmark
judgement in a case of Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923). The
Columbia (US) district Court rejected the scientific validity of the Lie Detector
(polygraph) test because the technology did not have significant general acceptance
at that time. This federal case has been decided by the District of Columbia Circuit in
1923.
 The judgement in Frye case considered the admissibility of testimony which was
based on the systolic blood pressure test and was a precursor to the modern
polygraph test. The court declared that a novel scientific technique must be
sufficiently established to gain general acceptance in that relevant scientific field to
which it belongs. Thus, under the standards set by Frye, it is not enough that an
expert or experts are qualified individual to testify that a particular technique is valid.
 In 1975, after Frye, the US Federal Rules of scientific evidence were
promulgated to guide criminal and civil litigation in the federal courts.
The first version of Federal Rule of Evidence (702) was framed as
follows:
“If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of
fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in the issue, then a
witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, education or training, skill, and
experience, may testify thereto in the form of an opinion or otherwise”.
(1) The testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data,
(2) The testimony is the product of reliable principles and scientific methods,
(3) The witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts
of the case.
 DAUBERT STANDARDS
 In 1993, the ruling of U.S. Supreme Court in case of Daubert v. Merrell
Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., which is also known as The Daubert
Ruling, provided a detailed framework to help the judges to determine
the relevancy and reliability of evidences which are to be produced in
the courts by the experts. In this case, two children born with serious
birth defects and alleged that the Benedictine (produced by Merrell
Dow Pharmaceuticals Company), an anti-nausea drug used by pregnant
women, claimed to contain a combination of dicyclomine
hydrochloride and doxylamine succinate, which is teratogenic has
caused the birth defects.
 Merrell Dow’s expert submitted documents showing that no published
scientific study demonstrated a link between Benedictine and birth defects. On
the contrary, Plaintiff were failed to produce evidences which could suggest
that Bendectine causes birth defects as their methodologies had not yet gained
acceptance within the general scientific community at that time. As a result, the
Supreme Court outlined the following rulings which must be followed by
experts in order to produce the expert testimony in the court of law, these are:
1. The empirical testability of a particular scientific theory or a technique.
2. The study or theory has been subjected to peer- review or published.
3. The acceptance of known or potential rate of errors of theory or technique and
the existence and maintenance of standards.
4. The general acceptance of theory or technique in a scientific community.
HIERARCHY OF FORENSIC SCIENCE SETUP
Govt of India

MHA Ministry of Home Affairs

CFSL, New Directorate of

Delhi Forensic Science
(CBI) Services (DFSS)

GEQD’s
Forensic Labs and
 DFSS: DIRECTORATE OF FORENSIC
SCIENCE SERVICES
 Established in 2002-03
 M.S. Rao was the founder director of DFSS
 Role of DFSS
 Helps in administration of justice system and provide knowledge and
facilities to various training programmes to people involved with justice
delivery.
 It provides the scientific aid in criminal justice system.
 Guides, regulates and controls the working of forensic sience laboratories
and GEQD’s.
 Provides financial and technical help to SFSL.
 Promotes Research and Development.
 To access and revive the current procedure and practice in labs
 CATEGORIES OF FORENSIC
LABORATORIES
CFSL(Central Forensic Science
Laboratory)

SFSL (State Forensic Science

Laboratory)

RFSL (Regional Forensic Science

Laboratory)

MSFL (Mobile Forensic Science

Laboratory)
CFSL(CENTRAL FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY)

SL. NO NAME OF ORGANIZATION YEAR OF

ESTABLISHMENT
1 CFSL, KOLKATA 1957
2 CFSL HYDERABAD 1967
3 CFSL NEW DELHI 1968
4 CFSL CHANDIGARH 1972
5 CFSL BHOPAL 2011
6 CFSL GUWHATI 2011
7 CFSL PUNE 2011
 AGENCIS INVOLVED IN CRIME DETECTION AND
INVESTIGATON
1. Government Examiners of Questioned Documents (GEQD)
 Year of Establishment: The first GEQD office in India was established in 1906.
 Headquarters: India has multiple GEQD offices, including in Shimla, Kolkata, and Hyderabad.
• Function: GEQD is a specialized forensic unit that deals with the examination of questioned documents,
including handwriting analysis, detection of forgeries, alterations, counterfeit documents, and authentication
of signatures. These examiners play a crucial role in criminal investigations, especially in cases involving
fraud, forgery, and other document-related crimes.
• Relevance: Their work helps in providing evidence in courts of law, thus supporting the justice system in
dealing with document-related crimes.
2. Fingerprint Bureaus (FPB)
 Year of Establishment: The first Fingerprint Bureau in India was established in 1897 in Calcutta (now
Kolkata).
 Headquarters: Fingerprint bureaus are established in various states, with the Central Finger Print Bureau
(CFPB) headquartered in New Delhi under the NCRB.
• Function: Fingerprint Bureaus are specialized units responsible for collecting, analyzing, and maintaining
fingerprint records. They work to identify individuals through fingerprint analysis, which is one of the most
reliable methods of personal identification.
•
3. National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
 Year of Establishment: 1986
 Headquarters: New Delhi, India
• Function: The NCRB is an Indian government agency responsible for collecting, maintaining,
and analyzing crime data at the national level. It also manages databases related to crimes and
criminals, including the maintenance of a national database of fingerprints.
• Relevance: The NCRB provides critical data and insights that help law enforcement agencies in
crime prevention, policy formulation, and the overall enhancement of the criminal justice
system.
4. Police & Detective Training Schools (DTS)
 Year of Establishment: Varies by state and region, with some dating back to the early 1900s.
 Headquarters: Various locations across India depending on the state, for example, the Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy in Hyderabad.
• Function: These institutions provide training to police officers and detectives, equipping them
with the necessary skills in crime investigation, law enforcement, and related fields. The
curriculum often includes physical training, forensic science, legal knowledge, and investigative
techniques.
• Relevance: Proper training ensures that law enforcement personnel are well-prepared to handle
various challenges in their line of duty, leading to more effective policing and crime-solving.
5. Bureau of Police Research & Development (BPR&D)
 Year of Establishment: 1970
 Headquarters: New Delhi, India
• Function: BPR&D is a government body in India focused on modernization and
capacity-building of police forces. It conducts research, formulates policies, and
develops training programs to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the police.
• Relevance: BPR&D plays a key role in the evolution of policing practices in India,
ensuring that law enforcement agencies are equipped to deal with modern-day
challenges.
6. Central and State Police Organizations (CPOs)
• Function: These refer to various law enforcement agencies operating at the central
and state levels in India. Central organizations include agencies like the Central
Bureau of Investigation (CBI), while state police organizations are responsible for
maintaining law and order within their respective states.
• Relevance: These organizations work in coordination to ensure law and order,
prevent crime, and uphold the rule of law across the country.
7. Scene of Crime Officer (SOCO)
• Function: A SOCO is a specialist officer responsible for examining and
collecting evidence from crime scenes. This can include photographing the scene,
collecting fingerprints, DNA, and other forensic evidence.
• Relevance: SOCOs play a critical role in ensuring that crime scenes are properly
analyzed and that evidence is correctly gathered, which is essential for solving
crimes and securing convictions.
8. Police Training Schools
• Function: These schools provide basic and advanced training to police recruits
and officers. The training covers various aspects of law enforcement, including
criminal law, physical fitness, firearms training, and investigative techniques.
• Relevance: These institutions are crucial for developing well-rounded and
competent police officers who are prepared to meet the demands of their
profession.
9. Dog Squad
• Function: Dog Squads are specialized units within law enforcement
agencies that use trained dogs to assist in various operations. These dogs are
trained to detect drugs, explosives, track suspects, and find missing persons.
• Relevance: The use of dogs enhances the capability of law enforcement
agencies in detecting and preventing crime.
10. Bomb Detection and Defusal Squad
• Function: This specialized unit is trained to detect, defuse, and dispose of
explosive devices. They play a crucial role in counter-terrorism operations
and in ensuring public safety in situations involving bomb threats.
• Relevance: These squads are essential in preventing and mitigating the
impact of explosive threats, thus protecting lives and property.
11. Research and Analysis Wing (RAW)
 Year of Establishment: 1968
 Headquarters: New Delhi, India
• Function: RAW is India's external intelligence agency, responsible for gathering
intelligence related to foreign affairs, counterterrorism, and national security. It operates
covertly and provides crucial information to the Indian government.
• Relevance: RAW plays a significant role in safeguarding India's national security by
providing intelligence on external threats.
12. Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)
 Year of Establishment: 1941 as the Special Police Establishment; renamed CBI in
1963.
 Headquarters: New Delhi, India
• Function: The CBI is India's premier investigative agency, handling a wide range of
complex and high-profile cases, including corruption, economic crimes, and special
crimes. It often takes on cases that have national or international implications.
• Relevance: The CBI is crucial in ensuring accountability and justice, especially in cases
involving public officials and high-profile individuals.
13. INTERPOL
 Year of Establishment: 1923 (International Criminal Police Organization)
 Headquarters: Lyon, France
 INTERPOL New Delhi Liaison Office: New Delhi, India
• Function: INTERPOL is an international organization that facilitates cooperation among
police forces worldwide. It helps in combating transnational crime by providing a
platform for information exchange and collaboration.
• Relevance: INTERPOL assists in dealing with international crimes such as human
trafficking, drug trafficking, and terrorism by enabling cross-border law enforcement
collaboration.
14. National Investigation Agency (NIA)
 Year of Establishment: 2009
 Headquarters: New Delhi, India
• Function: The NIA is a central agency in India responsible for investigating and
prosecuting offenses related to terrorism, national security, and other matters having
national or international implications.
• Relevance: The NIA plays a vital role in India's counter-terrorism efforts and in
maintaining internal security by investigating and prosecuting crimes that threaten the
nation’s safety.