POWER SYSTEMS-I

C-23_EE-403_4TH SEM_60 HOURS

R. SIVAPRASAD, M.TECH
LECTURER IN EEE
S.V GOVT. POLYTECHNIC, TIRUPATI
CHAPTER-3: COMBINED OPERATION AND
ECONOMICS OF POWER STATIONS
 INTRODUCTION

• The combined operation

and economics of power
stations refer to the
integration of multiple power
plants to achieve optimal
performance, reliability, and
cost-effectiveness.
• It is a critical aspect of power
systems engineering and
management, ensuring that
electricity supply meets
demand efficiently while
minimizing operational costs
and environmental impacts.
 3.1.1 NEED FOR INTEGRATED OPERATION OF POWER PLANTS

1. Meeting Varying Load Demands

• Power demand fluctuates throughout the day, requiring a mix of base load,
intermediate, and peak load plants to operate efficiently.
• Integration ensures that base load plants (e.g., nuclear, coal) operate continuously
while peaking plants (e.g., gas turbines, hydropower) handle demand surges.

2. Optimizing Resource Utilization

• Different power plants have varying efficiencies and costs. Integration enables optimal
dispatch based on fuel costs, operational efficiency, and load requirements.
• For instance, using renewable energy during availability reduces the dependency on
fossil fuels.

3. Enhancing Reliability and Stability

• Integrated operation allows redundancy in the system, improving grid reliability.
• Diverse power sources ensure uninterrupted supply even during equipment failures or
sudden demand spikes.
 3.1.1 NEED FOR INTEGRATED OPERATION OF POWER PLANTS

4. Incorporating Renewable Energy

• The variability of solar and wind energy necessitates integration with more stable
sources like thermal or hydropower plants.
• Integrated operation helps balance the intermittency of renewables with the reliability
of conventional power.

5. Economic Efficiency
• Operating the most cost-effective plants to meet demand minimizes total generation
costs.
• Advanced techniques like Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) and Unit Commitment (UC)
optimize the generation mix.

6. Environmental Sustainability
• Integrated systems reduce the environmental impact by prioritizing cleaner energy
sources and minimizing fuel consumption.
• Efficient scheduling and dispatch lower greenhouse gas emissions.
3.1.1 NEED FOR INTEGRATED OPERATION OF POWER PLANTS

7. Grid Stability and Frequency Regulation

• Integrated operation facilitates frequency control and reactive power
support.
• Fast-response plants, like hydropower and gas turbines, can stabilize the grid
during disturbances.
8. Technological Advancements
• Modern power grids require sophisticated control systems to manage real-
time operations.
• Integration enables the deployment of advanced technologies like smart
grids and energy storage.

9. Demand for Energy Security

• A coordinated approach ensures a steady supply of electricity even during
emergencies, such as natural disasters or fuel shortages.
3.2 DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ISOLATED OPERATION AND
INTEGRATED OPERATION OF POWER STATIONS

Feature Isolated Operation Integrated Operation

1. Connection Independent Interconnected with the grid
2. Backup/Redundancy Not available Available from other sources

3. Operational Scale Small scale, localized Large scale, regional or national

4. Cost Efficiency Less efficient More efficient

5. Reliability Less reliable Highly reliable
6. Voltage/Frequency Controlled locally Managed collaboratively

7. Load Sharing Not possible Possible across multiple stations

Extensive (transmission
8. Infrastructure Minimal
network)
9. Use Case Remote or off-grid areas Grid-connected systems
3.2.1 DRAWBACKS OF ISOLATED OPERATION OF POWER
STATIONS

1. No Backup: Limited reliability as there's no support from other power sources.

2. High Costs: Higher operational costs due to lack of shared resources.

3. Limited Capacity: Power generation is restricted to the station's capacity.

4. Frequency and Voltage Issues: Difficult to maintain stable frequency and voltage
during load changes.

5. Lower Efficiency: Less efficient due to small-scale operation.

6. Vulnerability: More prone to disruptions from faults or maintenance issues.

7. No Load Sharing: Cannot distribute excess load to other stations.

 3.3 CONCEPT OF LOAD DISPATCHING AND ITS PROCESS

• Load dispatching refers to the centralized process of controlling and coordinating the generation,
transmission, and distribution of electricity to ensure reliable, economical, and efficient delivery to
consumers.

• It involves balancing the supply and demand of electricity in real time while maintaining the stability
of the power grid.

• Objectives of Load Dispatching

1. Maintain continuous power supply and system stability.

2. Minimize operational costs by optimizing resource usage.

3. Ensure voltage and frequency are within acceptable limits.

4. Coordinate scheduled maintenance and handle unforeseen disturbances.

• Types of Load Dispatching

1.Centralized Load Dispatching: A single control center manages the entire grid.
2.Decentralized Load Dispatching: Local centers control specific regions, with coordination at higher
levels.
 3.3 PROCESS OF LOAD DISPATCHING

1. Load Forecasting
• Predicts electricity demand over different time intervals (e.g., hourly, daily, or
seasonally).
• Based on historical data, weather conditions, and consumer behavior.
2. Scheduling of Generation
• Allocates generation responsibilities to power stations based on cost, availability, and
efficiency.
• Includes economic dispatch to minimize fuel and operational costs.

3. Real-Time Monitoring
• Continuously monitors grid parameters like voltage, frequency, and power flow.
• Utilizes Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.

4. Balancing Supply and Demand

• Adjusts generation in real-time to match the fluctuating demand.
• Includes load shedding in emergencies or incorporating reserve power.
 3.3 PROCESS OF LOAD DISPATCHING

5. Coordination of Power Flow

• Ensures optimal power flow between regions through interconnected transmission lines.
• Reduces congestion and avoids overloading.

6. Voltage and Frequency Regulation

• Maintains grid stability by regulating voltage and frequency.
• Activates Automatic Generation Control (AGC) to balance deviations.

7. Fault Management and Restoration

• Detects and responds to system faults or outages.
• Coordinates with grid operators to restore power efficiently.

8. Communication and Coordination

• Maintains communication with generating stations, transmission operators, and
distribution companies.
• Ensures all entities work in sync to avoid disruptions.
 3.3.1 ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH (ELD)

• Economic Load Dispatch (ELD) is the process of allocating the required

load demand among the available power generating units in such a way
that the total generation cost is minimized while satisfying operational
and system constraints.

• Key Objectives of ELD

1.Minimize the total cost of power generation.

2.Maintain power balance between supply and demand.

3.Ensure the operation of all generating units within their allowable

limits.

4.Optimize fuel consumption and reduce environmental impacts.

 3.3.1 STEPS IN ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH

• 1. Load Forecasting
• Estimate the total load demand for a specific period.
• 2. Cost Function Formulation
• Each generating unit has a cost function, typically
expressed as:
• Ci(Pi)=ai+biPi+ciPi2
• ​Where
• Ci(Pi) = Cost of generation for unit i.
• Pi = Power output of unit i.
• ai, bi, ci : Cost coefficients of unit i.
 3.3.1 STEPS IN ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH

• 3. Apply Constraints
• Power Balance Constraint:
The total power generated should equal the total demand plus
losses:
• ∑Pi=PD+PL
• Where:
• PD​: Load demand.
• PL​: Transmission losses.
• Generator Operating Limits:
Each generator must operate within its minimum and
maximum capacity:
• Pi,min ≤ Pi ≤ Pi,max
 3.3.1 STEPS IN ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH

•4. Optimization Using Lagrange Multipliers

•The cost function and constraints are solved using techniques
like Lagrange multipliers to find the optimal power outputs for
each unit.
•5. Iterative Refinement
•Adjust for transmission losses and other non-linearities until
convergence is achieved.
3.3.1 SOLUTION METHOD FOR ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
Lagrange Multiplier Method
• To solve the ELD problem, the Lagrange multiplier method is commonly
used.
• The Lagrangian function is defined as:
•
• Where 𝛿 is the Lagrange multiplier also known as the incremental cost
• Now, taking the partial derivative of the Lagrangian function with respect
to Pi and setting it to zero gives the necessary condition for optimality.

• Solving for Pi
3.3.1 SOLUTION METHOD FOR ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
Iterative Solution Process:

• Step 1: Initial Guess for 𝛿, Start with an initial guess for the incremental
cost 𝛿

• Step 2: Calculate Power Outputs, Using the initial guess, calculate the
power outputs for each generator.

• Step 3: Ensure that the calculated power outputs meet the generation
limits. If any output violates its limits, adjust δ accordingly.

• Step 4: If the total generated power does not match the demand, update
δ and repeat the process until convergence is achieved.
3.3.1 SOLUTION METHOD FOR ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
Iterative Solution Process:

• Example 3.1: Consider a simple system with two generators with the
following cost coefficients and limits:
• Given a total load demand of 𝑃D = 300 𝑀𝑊, the steps to solve the
economic dispatch problem are as follows
• Solution:
• Start with an initial guess, say 𝛿 = 50

• Since the total power exceeds the demand, reduce δ, and recalculate until Σ 𝑃D =
300 𝑀𝑊 and the outputs are within limits.
3.4 VARIOUS CHARGES AND EXPENSES IN POWER STATION

• In a power station, charges and expenses can be classified as

• Fixed Charges
• Costs that remain constant, like capital costs, insurance, and administrative
expenses.

• Running Charges
• Costs that change with the plant's operation, like fuel, maintenance, and labor
costs for operations.
3.4 VARIOUS CHARGES AND EXPENSES IN POWER STATION

• Fixed Charges
1.Capital Costs: Initial investment, depreciation

2.Labor Costs (for permanent staff)

3.Administrative Expenses: Office salaries, supplies

4.Insurance: For plant and equipment

5.Taxes and Fees: Property taxes, income taxes

6.Interest and Financing Costs: Loan interest, debt servicing

7.Environmental Compliance: Regulatory fees, pollution control

equipment maintenance (if fixed)
3.4 VARIOUS CHARGES AND EXPENSES IN POWER STATION

• Running Charges:
1.Fuel Costs: Coal, gas, or oil

2.Maintenance and Repairs: Routine and emergency repairs

3.Spare Parts and Consumables: Lubricants, chemicals, etc.

4.Transmission and Distribution Costs: For transmitting electricity

to the grid

5.Environmental Compliance Costs: Emissions control

6.Labor Costs (for temporary or operational staff)

7.Operational Losses: Transmission losses and energy dissipation

 3.5.1 LOAD CURVE

• A Load Curve in a power plant

represents the variation in
electrical load (demand) over a
specific time period, typically a
day, week, or year.
• It illustrates how much electricity is
required at different times and
helps in planning the generation,
distribution, and scheduling of
power plant operations.
•X-Axis (Time): The time of day,
typically divided into hours (24 hours
in a day).
•Y-Axis (Load in MW): The amount of
electricity demand in megawatts
(MW).
 3.5.2 CONNECTED LOAD

• In power systems, the connected load is a crucial concept used to

design and manage electrical infrastructure.
• It represents the total power capacity of all electrical devices,
appliances, and equipment connected to the power system.
• Understanding the connected load is essential for ensuring that the
power system can handle the demand safely and efficiently.
• Components of Connected Load in Power Systems:
• Residential Load
• Commercial Load
• Industrial Load
• Street Lighting and Public Utilities e.t.c
 3.5.3 MAXIMUM DEMAND

• Maximum Demand in a power

system refers to the highest
level of electrical power demand
recorded over a specific period,
typically measured in kilowatts
(kW) or kilovolt-amperes (kVA).
• It is a critical parameter used for
planning, designing, and
managing electrical systems.
 3.5.4 DEMAND FACTOR

• It is the ratio of the maximum demand to the total

connected load.

• It is a measure of the utilization of the connected load

and is calculated using the formula
 3.5.5 LOAD FACTOR

• It is the ratio of the average load over a specified period

to the maximum demand during that period.

• It indicates how effectively the power system's capacity

is being used and is calculated usingthe formula.
 3.5.6 DIVERSITY FACTOR

• It is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum

demands of various subdivisions of a system to the
maximum demand of the entire system.
• It accounts for the fact that not all parts of the system
reach their peak demand simultaneously and is
calculated using the formula.
 3.5.7 CAPACITY FACTOR:

• It is the ratio of the actual energy produced by a power

plant over a given period to the maximum possible
energy it could have produced if it operated at full
capacity for the same period.
• It reflects the efficiency and utilization of the plant's
capacity and is calculated using the formula.
 3.5.8 PLANT USE FACTOR

• It is the ratio of the actual hours the plant is operated to

the total possible hours it could be operated during a
given period.
• It indicates the extent to which the plant's capacity is
being utilized and is calculated using the formula.
 3.6.1 COST OF GENERATION

• The cost of generation in a power plant is influenced by

multiple factors and can be broadly categorized into fixed
costs, variable costs, and capital recovery costs.
• 1. Capital Costs
• Plant construction and equipment:
• Includes the cost of building the power plant, acquiring equipment,
and installing necessary infrastructure.
• Financing costs:
• Loans, interest, and other financial expenses associated with the
investment.
• Capital costs are typically recovered over the life of the plant
and are expressed as a cost per unit of electricity generated
(e.g., Rs/kWh or Rs/MWh).
 3.6.1 COST OF GENERATION

• 2. Operating and Maintenance (O&M) Costs

• Fixed O&M Costs: These do not vary with electricity
production. Examples:
• Salaries for staff and operators.
• Regular maintenance of equipment.
• Property taxes and insurance.
• Variable O&M Costs: These depend on the amount of
electricity generated. Examples:
• Fuel transportation and handling.
• Water usage (cooling and processing).
 3.6.1 COST OF GENERATION

• 3. Fuel Costs
• This is often the largest component, especially for fossil fuel plants. It
depends on:
• Type of fuel (coal, natural gas, oil, biomass, etc.).
• Price of the fuel in the market.
• Plant efficiency (how much fuel is needed to generate a unit of
electricity).
• 4. Environmental Compliance Costs
• Costs associated with meeting environmental regulations, such as:
• Emission control equipment (e.g., scrubbers for coal plants).
• Carbon credits or taxes.
• Waste disposal costs.
 3.6.2 EFFECTS OF LOAD FACTOR ON COST OF GENERATION

• It is the ratio of the average load over a specified period to the

maximum demand during that period.

• It indicates how effectively the power system's capacity is being used

and is calculated usingthe formula.
 3.6.2 EFFECTS OF LOAD FACTOR ON COST OF GENERATION

• Effects Of Higher Load Factor On Cost Of Generation

1. Reduced Fixed Cost Per Unit
2. Improved Fuel Efficiency
3. Lower Maintenance Costs Per Unit
4. Better Capital Utilization
5. Reduced Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)
• Effects Of Higher Load Factor On Cost Of Generation
1. Increased Fixed Cost Per Unit
2. Reduced Efficiency
3. Higher Maintenance Costs
4. Underutilized Capital
5. Increased Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)
3.6.2 EFFECTS OF DIVERSITY FACTOR ON COST OF GENERATION

• It is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum

demands of various subdivisions of a system to the
maximum demand of the entire system.
• It accounts for the fact that not all parts of the system
reach their peak demand simultaneously and is
calculated using the formula.
3.6.2 EFFECTS OF DIVERSITY FACTOR ON COST OF GENERATION

• Effects Of Higher Diversity Factor On Cost Of Generation

1. Reduced Peak Demand
2. Better Utilization of Plant Capacity
3. Lower Reserve Margin Requirements
4. Efficient Fuel Usage
5. Decreased Wear and Tear
• Effects Of Higher Diversity Factor On Cost Of Generation
1. Increased Peak Demand
2. Underutilization of Capacity
3. Higher Reserve Margin Requirements
4. Reduced Fuel Efficiency
5. Increased Wear and Tear
6. Higher Transmission and Distribution Costs
PROBLEMS
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• In power systems, consumer tariffs are pricing structures designed to

recover the cost of electricity generation, transmission, distribution, and
maintenance, while ensuring fairness and promoting efficient energy use.
• Here are the various types of consumer tariffs commonly used:
• 1. Flat Rate Tariff
• Description: A single fixed rate per unit of electricity consumed,
regardless of the time or quantity of consumption.
• Applications: Typically used for small residential or agricultural
consumers.
• Advantages: Simple and easy to understand.
• Disadvantages: Does not reflect variations in demand or incentivize
energy conservation.
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 2. Block Rate Tariff

• Description: Charges vary based on the amount of electricity

consumed, divided into blocks:
• Increasing Block Rate Tariff: Higher charges for higher consumption.

• Decreasing Block Rate Tariff: Lower charges for higher consumption.

• Applications: Used for residential and commercial consumers.

• Advantages: Encourages conservation (increasing block) or benefits

bulk users (decreasing block).
• Disadvantages: May not align with actual cost variations.
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 3. Time-of-Use (TOU) Tariff

• Description: Different rates for different times of the day:

• Higher rates during peak hours.

• Lower rates during off-peak hours.

• Applications: Residential, commercial, and industrial consumers with

advanced metering infrastructure.
• Advantages: Reduces peak demand and encourages off-peak usage.

• Disadvantages: Requires smart meters and consumer awareness.

 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 4. Two-Part Tariff

• Description: Consists of:

• A fixed charge to cover fixed costs (e.g., maintenance, infrastructure).

• A variable charge based on energy consumed (kWh).

• Applications: Commonly used for industrial and large commercial

consumers.
• Advantages: Fair cost recovery for both fixed and variable expenses.

• Disadvantages: Fixed charges may discourage low-consumption

users.
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 5. Three-Part Tariff

• Description: An extension of the two-part tariff, including:

• Fixed charge: Covers fixed costs.

• Energy charge: Based on the units consumed.

• Demand charge: Based on the maximum demand (kW or kVA) during

a billing period.

• Applications: Industrial and high-demand commercial consumers.

• Advantages: Reflects the true cost of providing electricity.

• Disadvantages: Complex billing structure.

 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 6. Demand Tariff
• Description: Includes charges based on the consumer's
maximum demand in addition to the energy consumed.
• Applications: Used for industrial and large commercial
users.
• Advantages: Reflects capacity utilization and encourages
demand management.
• Disadvantages: Requires accurate demand metering.
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 7. Lifeline Tariff
• Description: Subsidized tariff for low-income households,
providing a minimum quantity of electricity at reduced rates.
• Applications: Residential consumers in developing regions.
• Advantages: Ensures affordability for basic energy needs.
• Disadvantages: May require subsidies or cross-
subsidization.
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 8. Power Factor Tariff

• Description: Penalizes consumers with poor power factors
(inefficient use of power) and incentivizes those with good
power factors.
• Applications: Industrial and commercial consumers.
• Advantages: Encourages efficient electricity use.
• Disadvantages: Requires investment in power factor
correction equipment.
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 9. Seasonal Tariff
• Description: Different rates for different seasons:
• Higher rates during high-demand seasons (e.g., summer).

• Lower rates during low-demand seasons (e.g., winter in some

regions).

• Applications: Agricultural and residential users.

• Advantages: Reflects seasonal cost variations.
• Disadvantages: May lead to consumer dissatisfaction in
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 10. Special Purpose Tariffs

• Industrial Tariff: Tailored for industries based on load and
usage patterns.
• Agricultural Tariff: Subsidized for irrigation and farming
activities.
• Bulk Supply Tariff: Offered to large consumers or housing
societies.
• Green Energy Tariff: Premium charges for electricity
 3.8 VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSUMER TARIFFS

• 11. Interruptible Tariff

• Description: Consumers receive lower rates in exchange
for allowing the utility to interrupt service during peak
periods.
• Applications: Industrial consumers with flexible operations.
• Advantages: Reduces peak load and overall generation
costs.
• Disadvantages: May cause inconvenience during
 3.8.1 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS CONSUMER TARIFFS
Tariff Type Structure Applications Advantages Disadvantages
Small
Flat Rate Simple and easy to Ignores demand variations
Tariff
Fixed charge per unit (kWh). residential/agricultura
understand. and efficiency.
l.
Block Rate Varies based on consumption Residential, Encourages conservation or May not align with actual
Tariff blocks (increasing or decreasing). commercial. benefits bulk users. cost patterns.
Time-of-Use Different rates for peak/off-peak All consumer types Reduces peak demand; Requires advanced
(TOU) hours. with smart meters. promotes off-peak use. metering infrastructure.
Fixed charge + variable charge Industrial, large Fair cost recovery for fixed and Fixed charge can burden
Two-Part Tariff
(per kWh). consumers. variable costs. low users.
Three-Part Fixed charge + energy charge + Industrial, high-
Tariff demand charge.
Reflects true cost of supply. Complex billing structure.
demand users.
Based on maximum demand + Industrial, large Encourages demand Requires accurate demand
Demand Tariff
energy consumed. commercial. management. measurement.
Subsidized rates for minimal Low-income Affordable electricity for basic Requires subsidies or cross-
Lifeline Tariff
consumption. households. needs. subsidization.
Power Factor Rewards good power factor; Industrial, Encourages efficient power Requires investment in
Tariff penalizes poor power factor. commercial. use. power correction.
Seasonal Different rates for different Agricultural, Reflects seasonal demand and May cause dissatisfaction in
Tariff seasons. residential. cost variations. peak seasons.
Custom rates for industries, Industrial, Can be complicated to
Special Tariffs Tailored to specific needs.
agriculture, or bulk consumers. agricultural. administer.

Interruptible Lower rates in exchange for service Industrial with flexible Service interruptions can
Tariff interruptions during peak demand. loads.
Reduces peak load and costs.
cause inconvenance.
 3.9 CAUSES OF LOWER POWER FACTOR

• A lower power factor in a power system is caused by

inefficient use of electrical power, where the current
drawn by the load is not in phase with the voltage.

• This leads to a higher proportion of reactive power and

lower active power (useful power)
 3.9 CAUSES OF LOWER POWER FACTOR

• 1. Inductive Loads
• Cause: Devices that use magnetic fields, such as motors,
transformers, and inductive heating elements.
• Effect: Inductive loads cause the current to lag behind the voltage,
creating a phase difference and reducing the power factor.
• Examples: Electric motors, induction furnaces, transformers, and
fluorescent lights.
• 2. Capacitive Loads
• Cause: Capacitive loads occur when systems or devices store and
release energy, such as in capacitors or certain types of power
electronic devices.
• Effect: These loads cause the current to lead the voltage, also
impacting the overall power factor, though the impact is typically less
significant than inductive loads.
 3.9 CAUSES OF LOWER POWER FACTOR

• 3. Harmonics
• Cause: Non-linear loads that generate harmonic currents (e.g.,
rectifiers, variable frequency drives, and computers).
• Effect: Harmonics distort the waveform of the current, creating
additional current components that do not contribute to useful
work (real power), lowering the overall power factor.
• 4. Overloaded Electrical Equipment
• Cause: Equipment operating beyond its rated capacity.
• Effect: When electrical devices (e.g., motors, transformers) are
overloaded, they consume more reactive power, leading to a
decrease in power factor.
 3.9 CAUSES OF LOWER POWER FACTOR

• 5. Poor Power Factor Correction

• Cause: Absence or inadequate compensation using capacitors or
synchronous condensers.
• Effect: Without proper power factor correction, inductive loads like
motors cause excessive lagging, resulting in lower power factor.
• 6. High Resistance in Wiring and Connections
• Cause: Poor wiring quality, high-resistance connections, and long-
distance transmission.
• Effect: High resistance leads to voltage drops and inefficiency in power
transfer, affecting the overall power factor.
• 7. Non-Uniform Load Distribution
• Cause: Loads that are unevenly distributed across phases in a three-
phase system.
• Effect: Unevenly distributed loads can cause imbalances and a decrease
in the power factor, especially in industrial settings.
 3.9 CAUSES OF LOWER POWER FACTOR

• 8. Electrical Motors Underloaded

• Cause: Motors running without sufficient mechanical load (i.e., running
under low load conditions).
• Effect: Motors running underloaded draw more reactive power, reducing the
power factor.
• 9. Use of Electronic Devices Without Power Factor Correction
• Cause: Devices such as computers, printers, and air conditioners often have
poor power factor due to their internal power supplies.
• Effect: These devices draw current in a non-linear way, contributing to poor
overall power factor.
• 10. Aging Electrical Equipment
• Cause: Older transformers, motors, and electrical components may become
less efficient over time.
• Effect: Aging equipment can lead to higher losses and inefficient energy
use, resulting in a reduced power factor.
3.10.1 EFFECTS OF POWER FACTOR (P.F) ON ELECTRICITY CHARGES

1. Higher Bills
• Utilities charge more when your power factor is low, as it means you're using more
electricity than necessary.

2. Demand Charges
• You pay for both real power (useful power) and wasted power (reactive power). A low power
factor increases your demand for both, making the bill higher.

3. Extra Costs for Utilities

• Utilities need to provide more equipment and capacity to handle the extra power your
system needs, which adds to your charges.

4. Increased Losses
• Poor power factor causes more energy to be lost in transmission, and those costs are
passed to you.

5. Penalty Charges
• Some utilities charge extra or require you to fix your power factor if it's too low.
 3.10.2 METHODS TO IMPROVE POWER FACTOR

1. Install Capacitors
• Add capacitors to your system. They help counteract the lagging effects of inductive loads (like motors) by
providing reactive power, improving power factor.

2. Use Synchronous Motors

• These motors can adjust their power factor automatically by supplying or absorbing reactive power.

3. Properly Size Electrical Equipment

• Make sure that equipment like motors and transformers are appropriately sized for their load. Over-sized
equipment can lead to inefficient power usage.

4. Power Factor Correction Devices

• Install automatic power factor correction (PFC) devices that adjust the power factor in real-time based on
demand.

5. Avoid Overloading Motors

• Operate motors at or near their rated load. Underloaded motors draw more reactive power, worsening the
power factor.

6. Harmonic Filters
• Use filters to remove harmonics caused by non-linear loads (like computers or variable speed drives), as
they can distort the current and reduce power factor.
THE END