Prenatal Development

and Birth
Human Lifespan Development
The Study
of Prenatal
Development
A model for the
development of all
subsequent periods
(e.g., stage-like
changes)
Understand how
the developing
organism can be
affected by mother-
to-be’s health,
habits, and lifestyle
Conceiving New Life
Conception/ Fertilization
●Conception occurs when a sperm cell
penetrates and fertilizes an egg cell
●Successful conception depends on
● ovaries releasing one healthy egg cell
● egg cell migrates most of the way down the
fallopian tube
● One sperm must penetrate the ovum to form a
zygote
Multiple Births
●Dizygotic (two-egg) twins - fraternal twins
● created from different sperms cells and ova -
hence not alike - different genetic makeup -
similar to other siblings
●Monozygotic (one-egg) twins - identical
twins
● created from single fertilized ovum splitting -
hence identical genetic makeup
●Multiple births may be related to delayed
childbearing, increased use of fertility drugs,
and in vitro fertilization
Mechanisms of Heredity
●Basis of heredity - DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid
●Sequence of base pairs - genetic code.
Complete sequence - human genome
●Gene - small segment of DNA
●Each cell contains - Chromosomes - coils
of DNA
Mechanisms of Heredity
●Every cell (except sperm and ova- gametes)
in the body has 23 pairs of chromosomes -
46
●22 pairs - Autosomes
●23rd pair - Sex chromosomes
●Sex Cells - Only 23 chromosomes through
the process of meiosis
Source: U.S. National Library of Medicine
Determination of Sex
Sex Chromosomes - X and Y(SRY gene)
Males - XY
Females- XX
Patterns of Genetic Transmission
Patterns of Genetic
Transmission
Alleles - pairs of genes
that produce alternative
expressions of a
characteristic ( blue
eyes/brown eyes
Homozygous - identical
alleles (bb, BB)
Heterozygous - different
alleles (Bb)
Genotype - Genetic makeup of a person,
containing both expressed and unexpressed
characteristics.

Phenotype - Observable characteristics of a

person. The phenotype is the product of the
genotype and any relevant environmental
influences.

Multifactorial Inheritance/ Transmission -

Combination of genetic and environmental
factors to produce certain complex traits
Genetic & Chromosomal
Abnormalities
●Due to environmental factors etc, mutations
alter the number or structure of
chromosomes
●Down’s Syndrome - Trisomy 21 ( 3 copies
of chromosome 21)
●Turner Syndrome - Monosomy - XO
●Klinefelter Syndrome - XXY
Sex Linked Inheritance
●Disorders linked to genes on the sex
chromosomes
●Most common form - recessive traits carried
on the X chromosome - Males are affected
more by these
●Recessive X linked disorders :
● Red- Green Color blindness
● Hemophilia
● Fragile X Syndrome
Heredity & Environment
●Reaction Range : potential variability of
heredity trait depending on environment
●Canalization: suppression of phenotype
variation - little possibility to alter the genetic
expression
●Genotype- Environment Interaction:
Effects of similar environment on genetically
different individuals
Genotype - Environment
Correlation
●Environment often reflects or reinforces
genetic differences
●The effects can be bidirectional
●Passive Correlations
●Reactive/ Evocative Correlations
●Active Correlations
Epigenetics
Duration of Prenatal Periods
1. Germinal period
(single-cell zygote 🡪 morula 🡪 blastocyst)
● Conception to attachment (8-10 days later)
2. Embryonic period (embryo)
● Attachment to end of 8th week (when all major
organs have taken primitive shape)
3. Fetal period (fetus)
● 9th week (with first hardening of the bones) until
birth
Germinal Period
Fallopian tube

Uterine wall
The Germinal Stage (first
two weeks)
●The blastocyst is differentiated into three
layers: the ectoderm, the endoderm, and the
mesoderm.
●The blastocyst moves down the fallopian
tube into the uterus for implantation.
●The embryonic stage begins with
implantation, and the fully implanted
blastocyst is referred to as the embryo.
Germinal Period: Blastocyst

Inner cell mass will eventually become the embryo, while

the trophoblast will develop into membranes (e.g., amnion,
chorion🡪placenta) that will protect and support the embryo.
Embryonic Stage (3rd through
8th weeks)

● Growth in the embryonic and fetal stages

follows a cephalocaudal (head-to-tail) pattern
and a proximodistal (near-to-far) pattern.

● The head, blood vessels, heart, and most vital

organs begin to develop before the arms, legs,
hands, and feet.
 Embryonic stage
▪ The placenta forms as an area of the
uterine wall through which oxygen and
nutrients reach the fetus.
▪ The umbilical cord connects the embryo
to the placenta and provides nutrients and
carries away waste products.
▪ The amniotic sac surrounds the embryo
and protects it.
Embryonic Period
●Begins with implantation and lasts for about
6 weeks
● Basic organs formed; sexual differentiation occurs
● Organism begins to respond to direct stimulation
(e.g., will turn its head in response to a light touch
around the mouth)
●Developmental patterns
● Cephalocaudal: Proceeds from head down
● Proximodistal: From middle of organism out to
the periphery
 Fetal
Period

Begins with skeletal

ossification
From week 8/9 until birth
From 1¼ 🡪 20 inches
From 8 🡪 3250 grams
Fetal Period

Fetus at
approx.
9 weeks
Fetal Stage (9th to birth)
●The fetal stage is marked by the
development of the first bone cells. The
embryo is now called the fetus.
●By the third month, the fetus is able to move
its head, legs, and feet. By the fourth
month, the mother may feel quickening, or
fetal movement.
●The beginning of the seventh month is
considered the age of viability.
●At the end of nine months, the fetus weighs
on average 7.5 pounds and is almost 20
inches long.
Fetal Development
● 10th week: Intestines in place; breathing and jaw-
opening movements
● 12th week: Sexual characteristics; well-defined neck;
sucking and swallowing movements
● 16th week: Head erect and lower limbs well-developed
● 5th month: As many nerve cells as it will ever have
● 7th month: Eyes open and lungs capable of breathing
● 8th month: Many folds of the brain present
● 9th month: Brain more convoluted
● Fetus doubles in weight in final weeks before birth
Prenatal
Development
of the Brain
Fetal Sensory Capacities
●Sensing motion
● Sense of balance at 5 months
●Vision
● Responds to light (i.e., heart
rate changes, increased
movement) at 26 weeks
●Sound
● Responds at 5-6 months
● Can discriminate outside sounds, but hears
mother’s voice best (i.e., changes in heart rate)
Maternal Conditions: Attitudes & Stress
● Presence of a sympathetic mate and
other supportive family members,
adequate housing, and steady
employment – factors that give a woman
a basic sense of security – appear to
enhance the prospects for a healthy
baby (Thompson, 1990)
● Psychological stress during pregnancy
is associated with premature delivery
and low birth weight (Hedegaard, 1993)
● Prolonged anxiety just before or during pregnancy
increases the likelihood of medical complications.
● Emotional stress is related to spontaneous abortion as
well as to labor and birthing problems.
Maternal diet and nutrition
●Poor nutrition leads to specific physical
deformities and increased risk for prematurity
and infant mortality; later nutritional deprivation
leads to a reduced number of brain cells.
●Pregnant women should eat between two
hundred and one thousand calories more per
day, adding mainly carbohydrates and protein.
●Nutritional deficiencies increase risk of ASPD
(Neugebauer, Hoek & Sser, 1999) &
Schizophrenia (Wahlbeck et al., 2001)
Maternal Conditions: Nutrition
Rotterdam,
Holland

Spontaneous
abortions,
stillbirths,
malformations, and
deaths at birth
increased markedly.
 Prenatal health care
●Adequate early prenatal health care is
critical to infant and maternal health.
●There are racial differences in adequacy of
care.
●Special programs have been implemented
in communities to help high-risk mothers.
Maternal Conditions: SES
Teratogens: Drugs
● Prescription: Thalidomide (nausea),
Valium (tranquilizer), Accutane (acne),
streptomycin & tetracycline (antibiotics),
artificial hormones
● Caffeine: Increased rate of spontaneous
abortion and low birth weight
● Marijuana: Low birth weight, premature delivery; infants startle
more readily, have tremors, and experience sleep cycle
problems
● Cocaine: More likely to be stillborn or premature, have low birth
weights, have strokes, have birth defects; infants more irritable,
uncoordinated, slow learners
● Methadone & Heroin: Born addicted; likely to be premature,
underweight, vulnerable to respiratory illness, tremors, irritable;
infants have difficulty attending, poor motor control
Teratogens: Alcohol
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Abnormally small head,
underdeveloped brain, eye
abnormalities, congenital
heart disease, joint
anomalies, malformations
of the face
Most serious damage from
alcohol caused in first
weeks of pregnancy

Are evident in their

inability to pay attention or
maintain attention
Teratogens: Alcohol

Fetal Alcohol
Normal Brain Syndrome Brain
Teratogens: Smoking
Increase in rate
of spontaneous
abortion,
stillbirth, and
neonatal death
Nicotine results
in abnormal
growth of the
placenta
Similar effects
from cigarette
smoke of others
Tobacco

● Nicotine and carbon

monoxide interfere
with fetal oxygen
supply
● Smoking is
associated with low
birth weight,
spontaneous
abortion, higher infant
mortality, and poor
postnatal adjustment
 Teratogens: Infections, etc
● Rubella (German measles): Can cause a
syndrome of congenital heart disease, cataracts,
deafness, and mental retardation in more than half
of all babies born to mothers who suffer from the
disease during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy
● Syphilis and gonorrhea. Blindness, jaundice,
anemia, pneumonia, skin rash, early death. Silver
nitrate in the eyes.
● Genital herpes. (1) Disease of skin and mucous
membranes, or (2) blindness, permanent brain
damage, seizures, and developmental delay.
 Teratogens: Infections, etc
●Cytomegalovirus (CMV). High risk for
infants; jaundice, microcephaly, deafness,
and eye problems.
●Toxoplasmosis. Parasite from uncooked
meat and cat feces. Low birth weight,
enlarged liver and spleen, microcephaly,
anemia, and calcifications in the brain.
●AIDS: Approximately 30% of the babies born
to mothers who test positive for the AIDS
virus acquire this disease
Teratogens: Critical Periods

Most vulnerable
when first forming
Teratogenic Principles
1. The susceptibility of the organism depends on the
stage of its development.
2. A teratogen’s effects are likely to be specific to a
particular organ.
3. Individual organisms vary in their susceptibility to
teratogens.
4. The physiological state of the mother influences the
impact of a teratogen.
5. The greater the concentration of a teratogenic agent,
the greater the risk.
6. Teratogens that adversely affect the developing
organism may affect the mother little or not at all.
Birth: The First
Bio-Social-Behavioral Shift
Death Rates Post Delivery (USA)
 The Birth Episode
● Birth
A
●After about thirty-eight
weeks in the womb, the
baby is considered "full
term," or ready for birth.
Fetal presentation
refers to the body part
B
closest to the mother's
cervix. There are two
types of presentation: A.
Cephalic (normal), and
B. Breech.
 Stages of labor
▪ 1. During the last weeks of pregnancy,
it is common for the mother to experience
false labor, or Braxton-Hicks contractions.

▪ 2. The first stage of labor usually

begins with relatively mild contractions,
leading to stronger contractions and the
dilation of the cervix to accommodate the
baby's head (10 centimeters).
 Stages of labor
3. Toward the end of the first stage, which
may take from eight to twenty-four hours, a
period of transition begins, and the baby's
head begins to move through the birth canal.
4. The second stage of labor is from
complete dilation of the cervix to birth, lasting
about one to one and one-half hours.
5. During the third stage of labor, which
lasts only a few minutes, the afterbirth
(consisting of the placenta and umbilical cord)
is expelled
Childbirth Settings and Methods
Traditionally, childbirth was attended by
a midwife and was seen as a natural
process. With the advent of modern
technology, births increasingly took
place in medical settings. This resulted
in decreased mortality rates, but birth
was now seen as a medical event
controlled by physicians.
▪ Hospital births. Birthing rooms are becoming
more popular in hospitals.

▪ Non-hospital settings
▪ Freestanding birth centers are non-hospital
facilities that provide family centered maternity
care.
▪ Birth centers have lower rates of Caesarean
sections.
▪ Home births are another alternative for
pregnancies predetermined to be low risk.

▪ Prepared childbirth. Lamaze Methods of

prepared childbirth help parents rehearse the
sensations of labor.
 Medicinal Aids to Birth

● Despite good psychological preparation, the mother

may experience considerable pain, which can be
made bearable through pain-reducing drugs such as
narcotics or other sedatives.
▪ The most common anesthetics are epidural and spinal,
which allow the mother to remain awake and alert during
birth.
▪ A general or local anesthetic delays the recovery of the
mother as well as the bonding between mother and child.
Problems During Labor and
Delivery (1 of 2)
●Faulty power is the failure of the uterus to
contract strongly enough to make labor
progress to an actual delivery. Induced
labor can be stimulated by the hormone
oxytocin.
●A faulty passageway condition occurs when
the placenta develops so close to the cervix
that it blocks the baby's passage down the
birth canal during labor. This condition is
called placenta previa.
 Problems with Labor and
Delivery (2 of 2)
▪ A faulty passenger condition occurs when
problems exist with the baby's position or size.
Usually babies enter the birth canal head first,
but occasionally one turns in the wrong
direction during contractions. Forceps
sometimes are used to remedy the situation.
▪ In a Caesarean section, the mother receives a
general anesthetic and the baby is removed
surgically. Techniques for this surgery have
improved; however, a common criticism is that
too many Caesareans are performed.
Assessing Viability
Physical
condition:
Apgar
Scale…
Neurological
condition:
Brazelton
Neonatal
Assessment
Scale…

Good guides for determining necessity of medical intervention and normal

development. Not so useful for predicting later intelligence or personality.
Apgar Scoring System
Rating (at 1 & 5 minutes after birth)
Vital Sign 0 1 2
Heart rate Absent Slow (<100) Over 100
Respiratory Absent Slow, irregular Good, crying
effort
Muscle tone Flaccid Some flexion of Active motion
extremities
Reflex No Grimace Vigorous cry
responsivity response
Color Blue, pale Body pink, Completely
extremities blue pink
Brazelton Scale
●Includes tests of infant reflexes, motor
capacities, muscle tone, capacity for
responding to objects and people, capacity
to control own behavior, attention
● Orientation to animate objects (visual/auditory)
● Pull-to-sit (e.g., try to right his head)
● Cuddliness (e.g., resist, passive, tries to cuddle)
● Defensive movements (e.g., try to remove cloth
from face)
● Self-quieting activity (e.g., suck thumb, look around)
Premature Birth

Born before
37th week
More likely
in twins,
very young
mothers,
women who
smoke or
are under-
nourished
Consequences of Premature Birth
● Immaturity of the lungs (leading
cause of death among preterm
infants), as well as of their
digestive and immune systems
● Premature babies who are of
normal size for their gestational
age stand a good chance of
catching up with full-term babies
● However, some children born
prematurely have problems
with maintaining attention and
with visual-motor coordination
when they are school age
Low Birth Weight
● Typical weight at birth: 7 to 7½ lbs.
● Causes of fetal growth retardation
● Multiple births; intrauterine infections;
placenta abnormalities; maternal smoking,
use of narcotics, or malnutrition
● Developmental consequences
● Two-thirds of deaths that occur in the period immediately
following birth are among low-birth-weight infants
● 3x more likely to have neurologically-based developmental
handicaps
● Decrease in intellectual capacities in childhood
● However, babies who are raised in good SES circumstance
with an intact family and a mother with good education are
less likely to suffer negative effects from their condition at
birth than children raised without these benefits