Learning

Chapter 6
 Learning
Definition of Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or mental
processes due to experience
Associative learning is when an organism makes a
connection or association that 2 stimuli or events occur or
happen together
Biology of Learning
“Each time we learn something, that experience creates
new synaptic connections and alterations in a wide network
of our brain structures: cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus,
hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala.”
 Learning (2)
“The human brain responds to environmental conditions.”
Mirror neurons are neurons that fire when an action is
performed as well as when observing the actions or
emotions of another
Found in several key areas of the brain
Believed to be responsible for human empathy and
imitation
 Classical Conditioning
Definition
Form of behavioral or associative learning
A previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit
the same innate response or reflex produced by another
stimulus
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Founder of classical conditioning
Research on digestive system of dogs, digestion in salivary
glands
1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine
Acquisition:
Initial learning stage in classical conditioning
 Classical Conditioning (2)
Neutral stimulus (NS) , elicits no response prior to learning
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), elicits a response without
learning having to occur
Unconditioned response (UCR), response elicited by UCS
without prior learning
Neutral stimulus (NS) paired with unconditioned stimulus
(UCS)
Several repetitions or pairings
NS elicits same response (UCR) as UCS
Conditioned stimulus (CS), previously neutral stimulus,
comes to elicit a conditioned response (CR)
Conditioned response (CR), response elicited by a
previously neutral stimulus
 Classical Conditioning (3)
The CS and UCS should be presented close in time to each
other
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
After learning has occurred
Extinction, CR weakens when there is no CS
CR is suppressed
Spontaneous recovery, CR reappears spontaneously,
after a period of time, when presented with the CS
Stimulus generalization is responding the same to similar
stimuli
Stimulus discrimination is responding specifically to a
particular stimulus and not to similar stimuli
 Classical Conditioning (4)
Applications
Conditioned Emotional Response
“Little Albert” study
Extinction of fear with relaxation response
Counterconditioning therapy
Taste Aversion
Avoid a food with a certain taste if illness followed eating
it
 Operant Conditioning
Form of behavioral learning
Individual “operates or acts” on the environment; change
in behavior is influenced by the consequences of
behaviors
Rewards and punishments
B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990)
Founder of operant conditioning
Edward Thorndike
“Law of Effect”, responses that produce desirable
results would be “learned or stamped” into the organism
Reinforcement (RF) is any condition that follows and
strengthens a response
 Operant Conditioning (2)
Increases the likelihood of a response reoccurring
2 Types of Reinforcement
Positive
Stimulus given as a consequence to increase likelihood
of a response reoccurring
Negative
Stimulus is taken away as a consequence to increase
likelihood of a response reoccurring
 Contingencies of Reinforcement
Timing and frequency of rewards
Continuous versus Intermittent
Continuous
All correct responses are reinforced
Best strategy for learning new behaviors
Shaping
Reinforcing responses that are similar to desired response
Drawback
Organism can become satiated
Intermittent
Some, but not all, correct responses are rewarded
 Contingencies of Reinforcement (2)
Most efficient way to maintain behaviors that have already
been learned
More resistant to extinction
Schedules of Reinforcement
2 Types
Ratio
Rewarded after a certain number of responses
Interval
Rewarded after a certain time interval
Ratio schedules
Fixed Ratio
 Contingencies of Reinforcement (3)
RF is contingent upon a fixed or certain, unvarying
number of responses
Example: every tenth response is reinforced
Variable Ratio
Number of responses required for reinforcement varies
from trial to trial
Interval Schedules
Fixed Interval
RF is contingent upon a certain or fixed time period
Example: once every 30 minutes
Usually results in low response rate
 Contingencies of Reinforcement (4)
Variable interval
Time period between reinforcements varies from trial
to trial
Most unpredictable
 Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcers
Have an innate basis because of their biological value to an
organism, such as, food, water, sex
Secondary Reinforcers, also called Conditioned Reinforcers
Acquire reinforcing power via a learned association with
primary reinforcers, such as, money, tokens, status
Token economy
Rewarded with tokens which can be redeemed
Premack Principle, by David Premack
A more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-
preferred activity
 Punishment
An aversive consequence used to weaken an undesirable
behavior
2 Types
Positive
Aversive stimulus is applied or given as a consequence to
decrease the likelihood of behavior reoccurring
Examples, spanking or time-out
Negative
The removal of a stimulus as a consequence to decrease
the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring
Examples, car keys, phone, computer
Punishment must be administered consistently.
 Punishment (2)
Difficult to use punishment effectively
Why?
The power of punishment to suppress behavior usually
disappears when the threat of punishment is removed
Temporary suppression v. elimination
Punishment triggers escape or aggression
Punisher might unintentionally serve as a “model” for
behavior he is trying to stop
Punishment makes the learner apprehensive, which
inhibits learning new and better responses
Learned helplessness, pattern of feeling or believing
that no matter what you do it is not good enough or
effective, therefore, eventually, stop trying
 Punishment (3)
Punishment is often applied unequally
If punishment is only option, then it should
Be swift: use immediate and appropriate timing
Be certain: provide clear and concise directions and
feedback
Be limited in duration and intensity
Be consistent
Clearly target the behavior, not the character of the
person
Be limited to the situation in which the response occurred
Not give mixed messages to the punished person
Combine key learning principles
 Punishment (4)
The most effective punishment is usually negative
punishment
Example, loss of priviledges
 Cognitive - Social Learning
Some forms of learning must be explained as changes in
mental processes, thinking, rather than as changes in
behavior alone.
Insight Learning
Wolfgang Kohler, Gestalt Psychologist
Learn to solve problems by suddenly perceiving familiar
objects in new forms or relationships
Reorganization of perceptions
Example, Sultan, the chimp
Cognitive Maps
Edward Tolman
Mental image an organism uses to navigate through a
 Cognitive-Social Learning (2)
familiar environment or space
Mental representation of physical space
Example, rats in a maze
Latent Learning
Hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs
Displayed when needed
Observational Learning
Albert Bandura
Reinforcement can operate indirectly, through observation
New responses are acquired after watching others’
behavior and the consequences of their behavior
Example, BoBo doll study