211BIT1101

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

UNIT-1
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 Syllabus

⮚Science and Engineering

⮚Why should engineers know biology?
⮚Major discoveries in biology
Unit 1
⮚Cell: basic unit of life
⮚Prokaryotes and eukaryotes INTRODUCTION
⮚Cell structure, organelles and their
functions
⮚Comparison of plant and animal cells
⮚Overview of cell cycle and cell division
⮚DNA as genetic material
⮚Gene, Genome
⮚Central Dogma of Life
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS
 SCIENCE VS ENGINEERING

?
SCIENCE
vs
ENGINEERING

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 SCIENTIST vs ENGINEER

ENGINEERING

THEORY
SYSTEM

SCIENCE

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 SCIENTIST vs ENGINEER

“All engineers are scientist, but all scientists are not engineer’’
⮚Scientist:

Scientist is trained in a science. Their job involves during scientific research

or solving scientific problems.
⮚Engineer:

Engineer has scientific training and who designs and builds complicated
products, machines, systems, or structure. They specialize in a branch of
engineering.
BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS
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 SCIENCE VS ENGINEERING

SCIENCE ENGINEERING
Science is concerned with understanding fundamental Engineering involves the application of science and
laws of nature and the behavior of materials and living technology to create useful products and services for the
things. whole community, within economic, environmental and
resource constraints.

Science is the study of the physical world. It is knowledge Engineering applies scientific knowledge to design
of general truths and laws. processes, build/create structures or equipment.

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 SCIENCE VS ENGINEERING

SCIENCE ENGINEERING
If a person is asking “why does this happen?” they are a If a person is asking, “How do I make this work?” they are
scientist. an engineer.
Science is a lot of high level theory. Engineering is implementation and optimization.

Science is a never-ending search. Engineering limited to goals, profit margins and physical
means.
Science explores the phenomena of nature and attempts Engineering attempts to use the laws of nature to
to find the laws that govern them. replicate them in situation leading to usable and results.

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 SCIENCE VS ENGINEERING

Scientific Inquiry Engineering Design

Abstractcmodel = Abstract Model =

d
Theory
o Designeconcept
Flow of Information

Flow of Information
m s
p i
a g
Concrete
r
m Concrete Description
p
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Description
e = Data r
= Specification
a o
s d
u u
Physical rSystem = PhysicalcSystem =
Object of
e Study Usefuleproduct

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education
 First Lesson Summary
Here is what we learnt:
Topic 1 Science is the law or principle whereas technology is the application
Scientist vs Engineer of the principles.

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 ROLE OF BIOLOGY

What is Biology?
Biology is the study of:
- All living things BIO – means LIFE
LOGY – means STUDY
- All life processes
- The habitats of living things
- The interactions between and among living things
- The history of living things
- The future of living things

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 WHY TO STUDY BIOLOGY?

❑Interdependence

- Living things depend on one another.

- Human existence depends on the existence of other living

things on Earth.

❑Making Biological Connections.

❑Human Needs.

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 HUMAN NEEDS

Energy

Clothing Shelter
Human
Needs
Health Oxygen

Food

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 IMPORTANCE OF BIOLOGY

⮚ Improved understanding on functions of organisms.

⮚ Improved understanding on causes of diseases.

⮚ Finding treatment for diseases.

⮚ Improved understanding on ecology.

⮚ Better management on environment problems.

⮚ Improved quality and production of food.

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 BIOLOGY IN ENGINEERING

Biological Engineering is an interdisciplinary area focusing on the

application of engineering principles to analyze biological systems and to
solve problems in the interfacing of such systems –

- Plant.

- Animal or microbial with human designed machines,

structures, processes and instrumentation.

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 ROLE OF ENGINEERS IN THE FIELD OF BIOLOGY

Working with Doctors, Clinicians, and Researchers, Bioengineers use traditional

engineering principles and techniques to address biological processes including…

- Ways to replace

- Augment

- Sustain or

- Predict chemical and mechanical processes.

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 ROLE OF ENGINEERS IN THE FIELD OF BIOLOGY

COST, MATHS, CHEMISTRY,

PRACTICAL PHYSICS, COMPUTER
APPLICATION SCIENCE

STRUCTURE,
ANALYTICAL &
PROCESS,
SYNTHETIC ENGINEERING MANUFACTURE

BIOLOGY
RECOMBINANT
GENOME
DNA
KNOWLEDGE
TECHNOLOGY

MEDICAL, MOLECULAR
RESEARCH BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGY

ASSOCIATED TERMS CONTRIBUTOR YEAR

Vitamins Casimir Funk 1912

Antigen Landsteiner 1901

DNA Watson & Crick 1953

DDT Paul Muller 1939

Homeopathy Samuel Hahnemann 1796

Insulin Bating & West 1920

Polio Vaccine J.E.Salk 1953

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGY

ASSOCIATED TERMS INVENTORS YEAR

TB Bacteria Robert Koch 1882

BCG Calmette & Guerin 1894

Streptomycin Waksman 1943

Stethoscope Rene Laennec 1816

Penicillin Jhesal 1928

RNA Watson & Arthur 1939

Heart Transplantation Christiana Barnard 1967

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGY

ASSOCIATED TERMS INVENTORS YEAR

Genetic Code Har Gobind Khorana 1966

First Test tube Baby Edwards & Steptoe 1978

Blood Circulation William Harvey 1628

Vaccination Edward Jenner 1796

Polio Drop Albert Sabin 1961

Rh factor, Blood Charles Landsteiner 1900

replacement
Sex Hormones Eugan Stainak 1921

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGY

ASSOCIATED TERMS INVENTORS YEAR

Sperm Humm & Leeuwenhoek 1677

Streptomycin - antibiotic Selman Waksman 1943

Three – Kingdom Ernest Haeckel 1866

Classification
Cancer Robert Walberg 1775

X - rays Roentgen 1895

Amoeba Roesel Von Rosenhof 1755

Antibody against Rabies Louis Pasteur 1885

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGY

ASSOCIATED TERMS INVENTORS YEAR

Antibody against Won Berring 1890

Diphtheria
Artificial Heart Michael Dibake 1969

ATP Lohmann K 1929

Bacteriophage Towrt & De Herelle 1915

Blood Group (AB) De Castello & Sturli 1902

Blood Group (O) De Castello & Sturli 1910

Blood Group (A, B, O) Carl Land Steiner 1900

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 MAJOR DISCOVERIES IN BIOLOGY

ASSOCIATED TERMS INVENTORS YEAR

Cell Robert Hook 1665

Cell Division Hofmeister 1876

Cell Theory Schleiden & Schwann 1839

Chloroplast James Simpson 1847

Chromatography Michael Tswett 1900

Colour Blindness Hornerd 1794

Five Kingdom Classification Whittaker R.H 1969

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

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 Topic 1
Biology
Topic 2 Second Lesson Summary
Biology in engineering
Topic 3 Here is what we learned:
Discoveries in biology Biology is the study of life. It is necessary to study about biology in order
to understand the life-involving process of the Earth. Biological
Engineering is an interdisciplinary area focusing on the application of
engineering principles to analyze biological systems and to solve
problems in the interfacing of such systems. Cell is the basic unit of living
organisms. It was first identified by Robert Hooke. One of the
breakthrough inventions in the field of biology is the Microscope. It was
invented by Anton von Leuwenhoek and allows us to visualize micro-size
particles.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 CELLS

⮚The basic structural and functional units of all living beings

NAME YEAR CONTRIBUTION

ROBERT HOOKE 1665 Discovered cells & Coined
the term "cells”
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK 1673 Created a powerful
microscope
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN 1838 Concluded that all plants
are made of cells
THEODOR SCHWANN 1839 Concluded that all animals
are made of cells

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 CELLS

BACTERIAL CELL PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

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 CELL THEORY

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 MODERN CELL THEORY

Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in addition to the original Cell Theory:

⮚The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on from cell to
cell during cell division.
⮚All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
⮚All basic chemical & physiological functions are carried out inside the cells.
⮚Cell activity depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within the cell.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 CELL ORGANELLES

⮚The cell is fractionated into various compartments called organelles.

⮚They may be membrane bound or non membrane bound.
⮚The membrane bound organelles may be single or double membraned.
⮚Each organelle has a specific function.

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 CELL WALL

⮚Structural layer outer to the cell membrane.

⮚ Provides cell rigidity and protection from mechanical stress.
⮚Present in plant cells, yeast cells and prokaryotic cells.
CELL CELL WALL COMPONENT

PLANT CELLULOSE

FUNGI CHITIN

BACTERIA PEPTIDOGLYCAN

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 CELL MEMBRANE

⮚A Lipid bi-layer surrounding the cell

contents.
⮚Semi-permeable in nature.
⮚Helps in maintenance of cell shape.
⮚Phospholipid layer: A polar head group
attached to two hydrophobic fatty acid
tails.

SOURCE: https://vectormine.com/item/cell-membrane-with-labeled-educational-structure-scheme-vector-illustration

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 FLAGELLA

⮚ Long filamentous appendages that aid in locomotion of prokaryotes.

⮚ Based on the flagella, organisms are classified as

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 CYTOSKELETON
CYTOSKELETON

⮚ Filaments present in eukaryotic cells.

⮚Functions include,

⮚Organizing other constituents of the cell.

⮚Maintaining the cell shape.

⮚Movement of the various organelles within cell. SOURCE: https://www.coursehero.com/sg/cell-biology/structure-of-the-cytoskeleton/

ACTIN INTERMEDIATE
MICRO-TUBULES
FILAMENTS FILAMENTS

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 MITOCHONDRIA

⮚ Known as ‘Power house of the cell’.

⮚ Possess the following regions: Outer membrane,
Inner membrane, Intermembrane space and Matrix.
⮚ Matrix possess single or double circular and double-
stranded DNA molecules called mt DNA and also the
55S ribosomes.
⮚ Functions includes production of ATP. SOURCEhttps://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320875

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 CHLOROPLAST

⮚ Plastids that contain chlorophyll pigment.

⮚ Present in plants and photosynthetic micro-
orgnaisms.
⮚ Double membraned and possess thylakoids,
grana and stroma.
⮚Acts as sites of photosynthesis.
⮚ Synthesis of fatty acids also occurs here.
SOURCE: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/505388389408993551/

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 RIBOSOME

⮚ Sites of ‘Protein synthesis’.

⮚ Present in cytoplasm of both Prokaryote
and Eukaryote.
⮚ Possess two sub units, larger and smaller.
⮚ Prokaryotes possess 70S ribosomes
(Smaller subunit of 30S & Larger subunit of
50S).
⮚ Eukaryotes possess 80S ribosomes
(Smaller subunit of 40S & Larger subunit of
60S). SOURCE: https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-ribosome-What-is-its-function-in-a-cell

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 GOLGI BODY

⮚ Known as “Cargo of the cell”.

⮚ It is a complex array of interconnecting
tubules, vesicles, and cisternae.
⮚ Sorts the cell proteins and membrane
constituents and transports them to proper
destinations.
⮚Transport of lipid molecules around the cell.

SOURCE: https://www.genome.gov/sites/default/files/tg/en/illustration/golgi_body.jpg

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 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

⮚There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum,

⮚Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
⮚Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
⮚The RER surface possess Ribosomes.
⮚ Functions include folding, modification, and
transport of proteins.

SOURCE:
https://www.genome.gov/sites/default/files/tg/en/illustration/endoplasmic_reticulum_rough.jpg

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 NUCLEUS

⮚ Known as ‘Command center of the cell’.

⮚ Contains the genetic material.
⮚ It is double membraned in eukaryotes.
⮚ Nucleus is absent in Prokaryotes; Nucleoid is
present.
⮚It is the center for replication and
transcription.

SOURCE: https://www.genome.gov/sites/default/files/tg/en/illustration/nucleus.jpg

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 VACUOLES

⮚Vacuoles are spaces in the cytoplasm (gel) where food and

chemicals are stored.
⮚It is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.

SOURCE:
https://
stammcellproj.weebly.com/plant-
cell-parts-vacuole.html

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 PEROXISOME

⮚ Single membraned organelle. MEMBRANE

⮚ Contain enzymes used to remove

hydrogen atoms from substrates. CRYSTALLINE CORE

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 LYSOSOME

⮚ Single membraned organelle.

⮚ Contain enzymes used to digest bio-
molecules.
⮚Also known as ‘Suicidal bags’.

SOURCE: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/structure-lysosomes-
infographics-vector-illustration-on-510712351

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 CENTRIOLE

• A set of 9 groups of microtubule triplets organized in a cylindrical shape

Functions include,
• Transformation into basal bodies that give rise to flagella and cilia.
• Formation of microtubule organising centres in cell division.
• Formation of axial filament.

SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centriole

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 MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES

SOURCE:
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320875
SOURCE:
SOURCE: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/505388389408993551/
https://www.genome.gov/sites/default/fil
es/tg/en/illustration/nucleus.jpg

SOURCE: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/structure-
lysosomes-infographics-vector-illustration-on-510712351

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 NON-MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES

SOURCE: https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-ribosome-What-is-
its-function-in-a-cell
SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centriole

SOURCE:
https://www.coursehero.com/sg/cell-biology/structure-of-the-cytoskeleton/

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 Topic 1
Cell Theory
Third Lesson Summary
Topic 2
Here is what we learned:
Cell organelles Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.
It was first identified by Robert Hooke. Cell theory states that the
cells arise from pre-existing cells through division. The cell
contains various organelles like nucleus, cytoskeleton, flagella,
lysosome, ribosome, mitochondria, chloroplast, golgi apparatus
and endoplasmic reticulum. It covered by membrane, cell wall
and capsule.

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 PROKARYOTIC CELL

SOURCE: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/323274079496312480/

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 PROKARYOTIC CELL

⮚ Does not have a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.

⮚ Example: Bacteria, Archaea.
⮚ The cells possess Capsule, Cell Wall, Cytoplasm, Cell Membrane, Pili, Flagella,
Ribosomes, Plasmids, Nucleoid Region.
⮚ The cells reproduce by
⮚Binary fission – Asexual.
⮚Conjugation, Transformation, Transduction – Sexual.

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 EUKARYOTIC CELL

SOURCE: https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/12-ultrastructure-of-cells/
eukaryotic-cells.html

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 EUKARYOTIC CELL

⮚ Have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.

⮚ They also have membrane bound organelles like mitochondria,

chloroplast, golgi bodies.

⮚ They divide by mitosis process.

⮚ Example: Plant cell, Animal cell.

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 PROKARYOTE vs EUKARYOTE

CHARACTERISTIC PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

CELL SIZE 0.2 to 2.0 mm in diameter 10 to 100 mm in diameter

NUCLEUS Nucleoid True nucleus

MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES Absent Present

FLAGELLA 2 protein building blocks Multiple micro-tubules

GLYCOCALYX Capsule/Slime layer Usually absent

RIBOSOME 70 S 80 S

CELL DIVISION Binary fission Mitosis

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 UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS

⮚ Organisms that possess only one cell.

⮚ Divided into organelle level.

⮚ Example: Amoeba, Yeast and Bacteria.

BACTERIA

AMOEBA YEAST
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 UNICELLULAR ORGANISM

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 MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM

⮚ Possess more than one cell.

⮚ Usually the body is composed of many organs.

⮚Examples: Plants and Animals.

PLANT LEAF
HUMAN KIDNEY

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 UNICELLULAR vs MULTICELLULAR

CHARACTERISTIC UNICELLULAR MULTICELLULAR

COMPOSTION SINGLE CELL MANY CELLS
ORGANISATION SIMPLE COMPLEX
DIVISION OF LABOR ORGANELLE LEVEL ORGAN LEVEL

LIFE SPAN SHORT LONG

CELL DIFFERENTIATION ABSENT PRESENT
NATURE MICROSCOPIC MACROSCOPIC
REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL MODE SEXUAL MODE

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 PLANT CELL

RIBOSOME
CELL WALL
CELL MEMBRANE
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM VACULOE

RAPHIDE CRYSTAL
NUCLEUS

CYTOPLASM

DRUDE CRYSTAL

AMYLOPLAST

CHLOROPLAST
MITOCHONDRIA

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 ANIMAL CELL

CELL MEMBRANE
MICRO TUBULE

GOLGI APPARATUS
CENTROSOME

NUCLEOLUS
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

NUCLEUS

CENTRIOLE
RIBOSOME

MITOCHONDRIA

CYTOPLASM

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 PLANT CELL vs ANIMAL CELL

CHARACTERISTIC ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

SIZE Small Large

CELL WALL Absent Present

PLASTIDS Absent Present

VACUOLES Absent Present

GOLGI APPARATUS Complex Simple

CENTROSOME Present Absent

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 PLANT CELL vs ANIMAL CELL

So what are two things that Plant cells have that animal cells don’t?

Chloroplasts, vacuoles, & Cell Walls

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 Topic 1 Fourth Lesson Summary
Prokaryote vs Eukaryote
Topic 2 Here is what we learned:
Plant vs Animal cell Based on the complexity cells may be prokaryotes or Eukaryotes.
A prokaryotic cell possess no membrane bound organelles
including nucleus. The eukaryotic cell possess membrane bound
organelles. Bacterial cell is an example of prokaryotic cell. While
plant and animal cells are examples of Eukaryotic cells. Plant
cells possess organelles like vacuole, chloroplast that are not
present in animal cells. The organelle like centrosome are unique
to Animal cell.

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 CELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTES

⮚Prokaryotic cells or bacteria divide by binary fission method.

⮚In eukaryotes, chloroplast and mitochondria divide like bacteria.

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 BINARY FISSION

⮚ A pre-existing cell divides to produce two new cells

⮚ Cell division involves inward growth of the plasma membrane, dividing the parent cell
into two daughter cells, each with a complete genome
⮚ The original cell is usually called the mother cell and new cells are the two daughter
cells

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 BINARY FISSION

DNA REPLICATION CYTOKINESIS

2 DAUGHTER CELLS

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 CELL CYCLE

⮚ In actively dividing cells, the G1, S, and G2

phases are collectively known as interphase.

⮚ In addition, cells may remain not growing or

dividing permanently for long periods of
time, in a phase of the cell cycle called G0
or quiescent phase.

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 CELL CYCLE
For one set of Homologous Chromosomes

SOURCE: https://www2.le.ac.uk/projects/vgec/highereducation/topics/cellcycle-mitosis-meiosis

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 Gap (0) phase (G0)

⮚ Resting Stage – Quiescence.

⮚ The cell has stopped dividing.
⮚ Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the
quiescent G0 state from G1 for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (Example:
neurons).
⮚ Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide throughout an organism's life
(Example: epithelial cells).

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 Interphase

G1 phase: Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division

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 S phase

⮚ The cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. The cell has stopped
dividing.
⮚ Duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure.
⮚ Centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase.

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 Interphase G2

CENTRIOLE
DAUGHTER CENTRIOLE

NUCLEUS G2 phase: Assembly of

cytoplasmic materials
necessary for mitosis and
cytokinesis.

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 MITOSIS

⮚Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the
same genetic component as the parent cell.
⮚Five stages of Mitosis:
• Prophase,
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase

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 MITOSIS

PROPHASE

▪Chromosomes condense and are more visible.

▪The nuclear membrane (envelope) disappears.
▪Centrioles have separated and taken positions on the opposite poles of the cell.
▪Spindle fibers form and radiate toward the center of the cell.

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 MITOSIS

EARLY PROPHASE

ASTER

CHROMOSOME

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 MITOSIS

LATE PROPHASE / PROMETAPHASE

▪Chromosomes become even more condensed and compact.
▪Nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.
▪Mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to “capture”
chromosomes.

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 MITOSIS

LATE PROPHASE / PROMETAPHASE

4n

SPINDLE

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 MITOSIS

METAPHASE

▪Chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell.

▪Spindle fibers connect the centromere of each sister chromatid to the poles of the
cell.

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 MITOSIS

METAPHASE

EQUATORIAL PLANE

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 MITOSIS

ANAPHASE

▪Centromeres that join the sister chromatids split.

▪Sister chromatids separate becoming individual chromosomes.
▪Separated chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell.

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 MITOSIS

ANAPHASE

2n 2n

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 MITOSIS

TELOPHASE

▪Chromosomes (each consisting of a single chromatid) uncoil.

▪A nuclear envelope forms around the chromosomes at each pole of the cell.
▪Spindle fibers break down and dissolve.
▪Cytokinesis begins.

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 MITOSIS

TELOPHASE

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 MITOSIS

CYTOKINESIS

▪The final cellular division.

▪ In plants a cell plate forms along the line of the metaphase plate.
▪In animals there is a constriction of the cytoplasm and a furrow
formation occurs.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MITOSIS

CYTOKINESIS

CELL PLATE

FURROW FORMATION

CYTOKINESIS IN ANIMAL CELL CYTOKINESIS IN PLANT CELL

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MITOSIS

SOURCE: https://www2.le.ac.uk/projects/vgec/highereducation/topics/cellcycle-mitosis-meiosis

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS

1. The mitosis occurs in somatic cells.

2. The check point and restriction points are found in
mitosis.
3. Prophase stage does not have any phase.
4. The chromosomal crossovers does not occur in
mitosis.
5. Two daughter cells are produced and there is no
reduction in chromosome number.
6. Daughter cells are diploid.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS

⮚The form of cell division by which gametes, with half the

number of chromosomes, are produced.

⮚Diploid (2n) → haploid (n)

⮚Meiosis is sexual reproduction.

⮚Two divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II).

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS

Sex cells divide to produce gametes (sperm or egg).

Gametes have half the # of chromosomes.
Occurs only in gonads (testes or ovaries).
Male: spermatogenesis
Female: oogenesis
Meiosis is similar to mitosis with some chromosomal
differences.

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 MEIOSIS

INTERPHASE I
chromatin
Nucleus and nucleolus visible. nuclear
membrane

cell membrane

nucleolus

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS I

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS I

Prophase I
⮚Longest and most complex phase (90%).

⮚Chromosomes condense.

⮚Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes come together to

form a tetrad.

⮚Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids (sister and non

sister chromatids).

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 PROPHASE I

Leptotene – Condensation of chromosome begins.

Zygotene – Formation of a synaptonemal complex and formation of bivalent or tetrad
(synapsed homologous chromosome).
Pachytene - Crossing over of non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
Diplotene – Dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and separation of the
homologous chromosomes of the bivalents except at the sites of cross-over to form
chiasmata.
Diakinesis – Termination of chiasmata and assembly of the meiotic spindle to separate
the homologous chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope
breaks down.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 PROPHASE I

LEPTOTENE ZYGOTENE PACHYTENE DIPLOTENE DIAKINESIS

Replicated Synapsis begins A bivalent has formed Synaptonemal End of prophase 1

chromosome and crossing over complex dissociates
condense occurred

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 CROSSING OVER

• Crossing over (variation) may occur between non sister chromatids at the
chiasmata.

• Crossing over: segments of non sister chromatids break and reattach to the
other chromatid.

• Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing over.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 CROSSING OVER

nonsister chromatids Tetrad

chiasmata: site of
crossing over

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS I

⮚ Metaphase – Arrangement of bivalent in metaphase

plate.
⮚ Anaphase – Movement of chromosome to opposite
poles.
⮚ Telophase - Nuclear membrane and nucleolus re-
appear.
⮚ Cytokinesis – Seperation of cytoplasm occurs and 2
haploid daughter cells are formed.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS I
METAPHASE 1
Shortest phase
Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles is random.
2. Variation
3. Formula: 2n
Example: 2n = 4
then n=2 metaphase plate
thus 22 = 4 combinations

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS I
ANAPHASE 1
⮚Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards the poles.
⮚Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS I
TELOPHASE 1
⮚Each pole now has haploid set of chromosomes.

⮚Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells are

formed.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS I

PROPHASE 1 METAPHASE 1 ANAPHASE 1 TELOPHASE 1

Exchange of Pairing of
fragments Movement of Each
chromosome at chromosome to chromosome has
between metaphase
homologous opposite poles two sister
chromosome
plate chromatids

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS II

⮚ Similar to mitosis.
⮚ Each haploid daughter cell produce 2 haploid cells after
division.
⮚ Hence 4 haploid daughter cells are produced after the
division.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS II

PROPHASE 2 METAPHASE 2 ANAPHASE 2 TELOPHASE 2

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 PROPHASE II

⮚Chromosomes condense.
⮚Nuclear envelope breaks down.
⮚Centrosomes move apart.
⮚Spindle microtubules begin to capture
chromosomes.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 METAPHASE II

⮚ The two sister chromatids of each

chromosome are captured by microtubules
from opposite spindle poles.
⮚ The chromosomes line up along the
metaphase plate.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 ANAPHASE II

⮚ The sister chromatids separate and are

pulled towards opposite poles of the cell.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 TELOPHASE II

⮚ Nuclear membranes form around each set of

chromosomes.
⮚ The chromosomes decondense.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS I

Two daughter cells obtained after Meiosis I

MEIOSIS II

Four haploid daughter cells obtained after

Meiosis II

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

 SPERMATOGENESIS

n=23
human
sex cell sperm
n=23
n=23
2n=46
haploid (n)
n=23
n=23
diploid (2n)
n=23
Meiosis I Meiosis II
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education
 Gene, Genome and chromosome
Genes

• About 30,000 genes, not a particularly large number compared

to other species.

• Gene density varies along the chromosomes: genes are mostly

in euchromatin.

• Most genes (90-95% probably) code for proteins.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Gene families

A gene family is a group of genes that share important characteristics.

• Structural: have similar sequence of DNA building blocks

(nucleotides). Their products (such as proteins) have a similar
structure or function.

• Functional: have proteins produced from these genes work together

as a unit or participate in the same process.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Genome-Introduction
• Prokaryotes
– Most genome is coding
– Small amount of non-coding is regulatory sequences

• Eukaryotes
– Most genome is non-coding (98%)
– Regulatory sequences
– Introns
– Repetitive DNA

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Prokaryote genome
• Example: E. coli
• 89 % coding
• 4,285 genes
• 122 structural RNA genes
• Prophage remains
• Insertion sequence (IS) elements
• Horizontal transfers

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Prokaryotic genome organization

• Haploid circular genomes (0.5-10 Mbp, 500-10000 genes).

• Operons: polycistronic transcription units.

• Environment-specific genes on plasmids and other types of mobile

genetic elements.

• Usually asexual reproduction, great variety of recombination

mechanisms.

• Transcription and translation take place in the same compartment.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Eukaryotic Genome

• Many genomes: nuclear, plastid: mitochondria, chloroplasts.

• Multiple linear chromosomes, total size 5- 10,000 MB, 5000 to 50000

genes.

• Monocistronic transcription units.

• Discontinuous coding regions (introns and exons).

• Repeat sequences - Microsatellite < 13 bp tandemly repeated

sequences- VNTR- Genome wide repeats.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Organization of Eukaryotic Genome

• Large amounts of non-coding DNA.

• Transcription and translation take place in different compartments.

• Variety of RNAs: Coding (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA), Non-coding (snRNA,

snoRNA, microRNAs, etc).

• Often diploid genomes and obligatory sexual reproduction.

• Standard mechanism of recombination: meiosis

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Prokaryotic Chromosomes

A.Characteristics
A.Located in the nucleoid region not Nucleus.

B.Single double-stranded covalently-closed circular DNA

• ds cccDNA

C.1300 nm in length
• Typical prokaryotic cell is about 1 nm in length.
• Center of the chromosome is attached to the plasma membrane.
• This helps partition the chromosomes during cell division.

D.Negatively supercoiled.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Prokaryotic Chromosomes
B. The DNA is arranged in a series of loops
1.Each loop is supercoiled
a. The loops are attached to proteins.
b. Attachment to proteins prevent rotations past loops.
c. Proteins are basic (positively charged) allowing them to interact with the
negatively charged DNA.

2.The number of loops can be determined by the number of cuts needed to remove
all supercoiling.
a. Removing all supercoiling should reduce S value by 30 %.
b. Single-stranded breaks remove supercoiling from a loop.
c. It takes 45 - 50 breaks needed to obtain this with E. coli chromosome.
d. This corresponds to the number of DNA gyrase binding sites.
e. DNA gyrases introduces negative supercoiling.
Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Prokaryotic Chromosomes
• Not all bacteria have single chromosome some bacteria
have multiple circular chromosome.

• To fit DNA within the bacterial cell the chromosomal

DNA must be compacted about 1000 folds.

• Proteins organize DNA into loops & looped structure

compacts the chromosome about 10 folds.

• Additional 100 folds is introduced by Supercoiling.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Model of E. Coli
Chromosome

Source: John & Wiley Sons, 2012

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Eukaryotic Chromosomes

• In eukaryotic cells, DNA is associated with basic proteins

(histones), from long chromatin fibers from a network, enclosed
in a double layered nuclear envelop, condenses into
chromosome during cell division

• Chromatin is the complex combination of DNA and proteins that

makes up chromosome.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Eukaryotic Chromosomes

Important structural features of chromosomes

• Histones
• Classes of histones
• Nucleosomes
• Solenoids
• Scaffolding - Compact 100-fold more by scaffolding with non-histone
proteins.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Packaging of DNA- Chromosome (14 0 0 n m)
• Level four - Looped domains coil and fold to produce the
metaphase chromosome.

• Interphase chromatin is less condensed than the

chromatin of mitosis with the 30-nm fibers and looped
domains.

• The chromatin of each chromosome found in a restricted

area within the interphase nucleus.

• Interphase chromosomes have areas highly condensed

called heterochromatin and less compacted areas called
euchromatin. Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 DNA as a genetic material-Discoveries

• Frederick Griffith (1928) – Experiments with pneumonia and bacterial

transformation determined that there is a molecule that controls inheritance.

• Oswald T. Avery (1944) - Transformation experiment determined that DNA was

the genetic material responsible for Griffith’s results .

• Hershey-Chase Experiments (1952) – Discovered that DNA from viruses can

program bacteria to make new viruses.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Frederick Griffith Experiment on Streptococcus pneumonia

• Griffith selected two different strains of the bacterium

(Streptococcus pneumonia).
• The virulent , pathogenic strain called as the S-strain (Smooth strain
or S-III).
• The avirulent ,non pathogenic strain called as the R-strain (Rough
strain or R-II).
• S-strain has smooth outer coat made of polysaccharide.
• R-strain don’t have this polysaccharide coat and therefore it’s
surface appear rough.

Source: Sutori-Presentation tool for the class

room

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Frederick Griffith Experiment

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Frederick Griffith Experiment
• Mice injected with S-strain pneumococcus , the mice died by an
infection of pneumonia.

• Mice injected with R-strain, the mice lived.

• Mice were injected with heat killed S-strain they lived because of the S-
strain lost their ability to infect pneumonia after heat treatment.

• When heat killed S- and R-strains were injected together , the mice died.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Frederick Griffith Experiment

• As a result of pneumonia and S-strain isolated from the dead

bodies of mice.

• Dead S-strain bacteria was responsible for the transformation of R-

strain to S-strain.

• The content of the dead S-strain responsible for transformation

was called the transforming principle.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Griffith’s Conclusion

There was transformation of Avirulent RII type to Virulent SIII type by

picking up the genetic material encoding the LPS capsule from the Heat
Killed S III .

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Avery, Macleod, and McCarty Experiments

⚫ Avery, Macleod and McCarty experimentally proved that

the transforming principle was DNA.

⚫ Macleod and McCarty demonstrated the most definitive

experiment using bacterial system and specific enzymes
that degrade DNA, RNA and protein.

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Avery, Macleod and McCarty Experiments

Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101

© Kalasalingam academy of research and
 Avery, Macleod and McCarty Experiments
▪ Based on transformation experiments.

▪ Cell free extract of SIII strain bacterium was subjected to DNase, RNase and
Protease.

▪ Each treated extract was mixed with RII and mixture injected to mouse to
see transformation.

▪ In case of Protease and Rnase transformation was recorded.

▪ In case of DNase no transformation was recorded.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Avery, Macleod and McCarty Experiments

DNA isolated from SIII strain Bacteria could confer the pathogenic
properties to R II strain Bacteria .

Two conclusion were derived

1. Active factor is DNA which can cause transformation.
2. SIII strain contains the Active factor.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 HERSHEY & CHASE (1952) EXPERIMENT WITH T2
BACTERIOPHAGE
▪ In culture I - Bacteriophage was grown in medium containing Radioactive
Phosphorus (32P) - To make DNA Radioactive.

▪ In culture II - Bacteriophage was grown in medium containing radioactive Sulphur

(35S) - To make proteins Radioactive.

▪ Both kinds of Bacteriophage particles were allowed to infect Bacteria.

▪ Radioactive Phosphorus was found with bacterial cells.

▪ Radioactive Sulphur was not traced in bacterial cells.

▪ Bacteriophage progeny carried only radioactive phosphorus and not radioactive

sulphur.
© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Life cycle of T2 Phage

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Hershey & Chase Experiment

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 HERSHEY &
CHASE
EXPERIMENT

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Hershey & Chase conclusion

• Bacteriophage were not labelled with 32P and only with 35S.
• The results of experiment clearly indicate that only DNA and not the proteins
enter the bacterial cell.
• Protein coat is left outside. The DNA entering the host cell carries all the genetic
information for synthesis of new phage particle.
• This certainly proves that DNA is the genetic material in Bacteriophage and not
proteins.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Replication

• DNA Replication-models
• Enzymes in replication
• Steps in replication

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA replication-Introduction, models
It is the process by which the DNA double helix unwinds and makes an exact
identical copy of itself. Conservative Semiconservative Dispersive
Parental DNA strand
Conservative model
Both parental strands stay together
after DNA replication
Semiconservative model
One round of replication
The double-stranded DNA contains
one parental and one daughter strand
following replication
Dispersive model
Parental and daughter DNA are Reference: Iwasa, J., Marshall, W. F., & Karp, G.
interspersed in both strands following (2016). Karp's cell and molecular biology: Concepts and
replication experiments.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Key enzymes involved in DNA replication
• DNA helicase: breaks the hydrogen bonds between the DNA strands.

• Topoisomerase: alleviates positive supercoiling.

• Single-strand binding proteins: keep the parental strands apart.

• Primase: synthesizes an RNA primer.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Key enzymes involved in DNA replication
• Primase: synthesizes an RNA primer.

• DNA polymerase III: synthesizes a daughter strand of DNA.

• DNA polymerase I: excises the RNA primers and fills in with DNA

• DNA ligase: covalently links the Okazaki fragments together.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA REPLICATION - Steps

• Steps: Initiation, Elongation, Termination

• DNA synthesis initiation begins at a site termed as origin of replication

• Synthesis of DNA is bidirectional around bacterial chromosome

• The replication forks eventually meets at the opposite side of the bacterial
chromosome which ends replication

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA Replication - Steps

• DNA replication is initiated by the binding of DnaA proteins to

sequences within the origin known as DnaA box sequences.

• 20 – 40 DnaA proteins bind to five DnaA boxes in oriC to initiate DNA

replication.

• DnaA proteins also bind to each other to form a complex.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA Replication - Steps
• With the aid of other DNA-binding proteins, such as HU (heat-
unstable protein), and IHF (integration host factor), this causes the
DNA to bend around the complex of DnaA proteins and results in the
separation of the AT-rich region.

• Following separation of AT-rich region, DnaA proteins, with help of

DnaC protein, recruit DNA helicase proteins to this site. DNA helicase
is also known as DnaB protein.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA REPLICATION - Steps

• DNA helicases bind to single stranded DNA and travel Composed of six subunits
Travels along the DNA in the 5’ to
along the DNA in a 5ʹ to 3ʹ direction to keep the 3’ direction
Uses energy from ATP
replication fork moving.

• The action of DNA helicases promotes the movement

of two replication forks outward from oriC in
opposite directions.

• This initiates the replication of the bacterial

chromosome in both directions, an event termed
Bidirectional replication
bidirectional replication.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA REPLICATION - Steps

• DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between base pairs and
thereby unwind the strands; this action generates positive supercoiling
ahead of each replication fork.

• Topoisomerase (type II), also called DNA gyrase, travels in front of DNA
helicase and alleviates positive supercoiling.

• The next event in DNA replication involves the synthesis of short strands
of RNA (rather than DNA) called RNA primers.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA REPLICATION - Steps
• These strands of RNA are synthesized by linkage of ribonucleotides via
primase. This enzyme synthesizes short strands of RNA, typically 10 to 12
nucleotides in length.

• These short RNA strands start, or prime, the process of DNA replication.

• In the leading strand, a single primer is made at the origin of replication.

• In the lagging strand, multiple primers are made.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA REPLICATION - Steps
• At the leading strand: One RNA primer is made at the origin, DNA
pol III attaches nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’ direction as it slides toward
the opening of the replication fork

• At the lagging strand, synthesis occurs in 5’ to 3’ direction, but

away from the replication fork, many RNA primers are required.

• DNA pol III uses RNA primers to synthesize small DNA fragments
called Okazaki fragments (1000 to 2000 nucleotides each).

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 DNA REPLICATION - Steps
• DNA pol I removes RNA primers and fills the resulting gap with DNA, it
uses its 5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity to digest the RNA and its 5’ to 3’
polymerase activity to replace it with DNA.

• DNA ligase catalyzes a phosphodiester bond thereby connecting the DNA

fragments.

• DNA replication ends when oppositely advancing forks meet.

• Finally DNA ligase covalently links all the DNA strands.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Transcription

Course
name –
Biology
© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101 for
© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Transcription: Step 1

● Association of RNA polymerase with DNA marks the first step in transcription.
● The interaction happens between the two macromolecules namely nucleic acids
and proteins.
● Promoter is the site where the polymerase interacts with DNA prior to the
initiating transcription.
● This association of DNA and polymerase enzyme does not happen spontaneously.
Therefore, transcription factors aid in the process of this association.
● In addition, the promoter site carries information regarding the strand which
need to be transcribed.
Course
name –
Biology
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 Transcription: Step 2
● The RNA polymerase enzme moves along the DNA strand in 5’ to 3’ direction.
● Temporarily, the DNA unwinds and the enzyme adds complementary bases.
● The overall reaction may be summarized as
RNAn + NTP → RNAn+1 + PPi
● During this process there is a cleavage of ribonucleoside tripohsphate substrates into
ribonucleoside monopohsphates which are covalently attached to the growing chain.
● PPi (pyrophosphate) created are very essential for the progression of polymerization
since they supply energy for the enzyme mediated catalysis.
● Pyrophosphatase is an enzyme which hydrolyzes pyrophosphate into inorganic
phosphates (Pi).
© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Transcription: Step 2

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Transcription: Step 2
● When the RNA polymerase moves along the DNA new bases are added to the growing
chain based on the complementarity with the DNA.
● When the RNA polymerase moves away DNA double helix reforms.
● The RNA does not remain attached to the DNA. Only at the growing end 9 bases remain
attached.
● RNA polymerase enzyme polymerizes 20 – 50 nucleotides per second.
● In a cell, hundreds of RNA polymerases keep transcribing a variety of genes in a given
point of time.
● The RNA polymerase enzyme is “processive” since it is bound to the DNA over a long
range of templates.
Course
name –
Biology
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 The Genetic code

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Genetic Code – Three nucleotide
● There are 4 nucleotides (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine)
● Three nucleotide combination with 4 nucleotides – 64 amino acids
● Number of amino acids – 20
● 44 triplets are in excess
● Three stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA)
● 44 – 3 = 41 in excess
● The conclusion is that amino acids are coded by more than one triplet.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Identifying the codons
● Only three codons do not code for amino acid, which are
– UAA
– UAG
– UGA
● Exception of universality of codons was observed in mitochondria.
● In human mitochondria, UGA codes for tryptophan, whereas it is a stop codon
otherwise.
● Other examples include, AUA codes for methionine rather than isoleucine; AGA and
AGG are stop codons which otherwise codes for arginine

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Translation-Introduction
● Translation is one of the complex processes of the cell.
● The process involves a variety of participating molecules such as amino acyl tRNA,
ribosomal subunits, messenger RNA, high energy phosphates, various proteins and
ions.
● The process translates the information stored in mRNA into polypeptides and
contributes to the cellular activities.
● The process has to be precise and has to incorporate right amino acid into the
growing polypeptide chain.
● Initiation codon (AUG) marks the start of translation process.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Translation: Steps
● First step in translation is bringing of
small ribosomal subunit to the
initiation codon.
● Second step in translation is bringing of
first aa-tRNA into the ribosome.
● Third step in translation is the
assembly of complete initiation
complex.
● Ribosomes have two subunits. Each of
the subunits have A site, P site and E
site which help in translation.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Translation: Steps

● Elongation process starts when the aa-tRNA moves form A site to P site.
● New aa-tRNA enters the A site. This entry is free but only the right aa-tRNA can
induce conformational change in ribosome.
● Peptide bond formation happens between the N and carbonyl carbon
establishing a dipeptide.
● Migration of dipeptide containing tRNA happens to P-site.
● Termination process is aided by release factor. The release consumes a GTP and
releases the nascent polypeptide.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Overview of Elongation

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 References:

⮚ Gerald Karp. Cell and Molecular Biology – Concepts and

Experiments, 6th Edition.
⮚ Lewin, B. (2004). Genes VIII. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson Prentice Hall. Chicago (Author-Date, 15th ed.)

© Kalasalingam academy of research and Course name Biology for Engineers /211BIT1101
 Thank you!

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS