Basic radio theory

Copyright Roger Wincer, NMIT 2006

What is radio?
 Radio is more correctly known as Electro Magnetic radiation
 It is produced by the flow of an alternating electric current
in a conductor such as a wire.

 In a radio system we could call this an Aerial or Antenna.

 The radiation is the interaction of two force fields, magnetic
& electric, produced by the alternating electric current.
 This radiation can travel millions of miles even through
interplanetary space at a constant speed of 300 million
metres per second.
The relationship between the two force fields
There are two terms used to measure or
describe electro magnetic radiation.
These are :
Heinrich Hertz

 Frequency, measured in Hertz

 Wavelength, measured in Metres

But what do these terms mean and what is the

relationship between them?
A sinusoidal “AC” voltage waveform as might be
produced by a radio transmitter
The relation ship between frequency
and wavelength is:

As Frequency increases Wavelength

decreases and vice versa.
 Every radio transmission has it’s own unique
frequency and wavelength.
 Either term can be used to describe a radio wave.

2162000 Hertz = 138.76 Metres

 Because we know E/M radiation
travels at a constant speed of
300,000,000 metres per second.
 We can use this value of constant

speed to calculate either;

 Frequency or Wavelength as long as

one of them is known.

 The formula is :

 Speed in Metres per second divided

by Frequency in Hertz = Wavelength

in metres
Here are a few exercises for you to
try and work out the wavelength!
 300 MHz
 30 MHz

 2182 KHz

 6215 KHz

 156.8 MHz
 How radio waves travel
 Every radio wave travels outwards from it’s source at the
speed of light 300 million metres per second.
 The direction it travels in is usually every direction. The
same as light would travel out from a light bulb.

James Clerk-Maxwell
calculated the speed of light

 The strength of the field measured at any point will weaken

as it travels outward. A good analogy of this is: How the
ripples on a pool travel outwards from a splash point.
Radio waves travel out from their source like ripples on a
lake, becoming weaker the further they go.
 Limitations on how far radio waves travel
 If the radio source is out in space then in
theory radio waves of any frequency will
travel onward and outward forever.

 On the Earth this is not true. The Earth

itself affects the radio waves, by
absorbing, reflecting and refracting them.
 The extent of these affects is dependent
upon the frequency of the radio waves.
Radio Propagation on the Earth
 How radio travels from one place to another is
called “Radio propagation”.
 In general various bands of radio frequencies
propagate differently over the Earth’s surface.

 It is these propagation characteristics that determine which

band we will use for communication over various distances.
 The Ionosphere

 The physical characteristic that has

the most influence over radio
propagation on the Earth is the
 IONOSPHERE
 The Ionosphere
 Around the Earth are four layers of Ionised
gas. These layers are formed by the effect
of solar radiation on the atmosphere.
 The strength of the layers is influenced by
daily, seasonal and other variations in solar
radiation.
 The four layers have been named from
lowest to highest:
 D - E - F1 and
F2
 These layers are responsible for preventing
radio frequencies below about 30
Megahertz from escaping the Earth.
Relative position of the Ionosphere layers
The layers and their heights
There are three main frequency bands that
determine the most useful propagation method for
radio communication.
 These are:
 Frequencies below 3 Megahertz

 Frequencies between 3 and 30

Megahertz
 Frequencies above 30 Megahertz
The
radio
bands
Skywave + Groundwave + Directwave propagation
Propagation of frequencies below
3 megahertz
 In this band of frequencies the radio
waves travel through the surface of
the earth, and up to the region of the
“E” layer, about 150 kilometres
above the Earth’s surface.
 These radio waves are trapped in this

region and cannot escape from the

Earth.
Ground wave propagation on frequencies below 3
Megahertz in the VLF, LF and MF bands
 These frequencies can travel in the surface of the
earth. Not usually more than a few metres deep
in soil and rock but may penetrate further in sea
water.
 This characteristic is often used for radio
communications paths using “Ground Wave”
propagation.
 The distance over which this method is effective
is limited by the electrical conductivity of the
earth’s surface. But can vary from several
thousand Km at about 15 KHz to about 150 Km at
3 MHz
 Depending generally on aerial efficiency and
transmitter power for any given radio path.
Ground wave, the radio broadcaster’s
favourite, requires really BIG aerials
Maritime Coast radio station
Taupo maritime radio
Comparing earth conductivity from
best to worst.

1. Seawater
2. Fresh water
3. Swampy ground
4. Damp soils
5. Dry rock and sand desert
6. Pumice land
Frequencies below 3 MHz at night.
 During the daytime the D layer exists to totally
block these frequencies from getting into the
higher E layer.
 But at night the D layer disappears and allows the
signals to get up to the E layer where they are
refracted back to Earth.
 This affect is more noticeable in the higher 2 MHz
marine band than at the rest of these
frequencies. But can also sometimes be noticed
occurring at frequencies as low at 150 KHz in the
LF band.
 What happens at 3 MHz?
 At this frequency the ground wave will have fallen off to
distance that is not particularly useful for radio
communication.
 This is due to signal losses in the ground increasing with
frequency.
 The Influence of the D layer is diminished and will allow
these frequencies to reach the higher E layer even during
the day time. Where they will be refracted back down to the
earth’s surface at some distant point beyond the ground
wave boundary. This is known as “SKYWAVE” propagation

 From 3 MHz to 30 MHz propagation is via the ionosphere

layers E, F1 and F2 and is “SKYWAVE” propagation
Losses on Ionosphere communication paths using
Skywave propagation
SKYWAVE propagation in the High Frequency
band 3 to 30 MHz
 The height above the earth’s surface of the layers
of the Ionosphere influence how far radio waves
can be refracted back down to the Earth’s
surface.
 The F1 and F2 layers are generally responsible for
long distance radio communication.
 The E layer for medium ranges.
 Unfortunately there are no rigid rules about what
frequencies give long distance and medium
distance communication. Throughout any daily
cycle of the Sun’s influence the ionosphere is
constantly changing and frequency selection for a
particular distance will also change constantly.
A very rough guide to HF frequency selection
during the daytime

 4 MHz band 150 to 500 miles

 6 MHz band 250 to 750 miles

 8 MHz band 300 to 1100 miles

 12 MHz band 600 to 2500 miles

 16 MHz band 900 to 4500 miles

 22 MHz band 2000 to 8000 miles

A rough guide to HF frequency selection at night
time

 4 MHz band 200 to 2000 miles

 6 MHz band 400 to 6000 miles

 8 MHz band 500 to 8000 miles

 12 MHz band 1000 to 12,000 miles

 16 MHZ band 1500 to 12,000 miles

 22 MHz band 3000 to 12,000 miles

But it all depends on what the SU
N is doing!

 Daily , Seasonal and even an 11 year cycle called the “Sun

Spot” cycle affects how the ionosphere behaves.
 Too much radiation from the Sun can cause Radio
“blackouts” and not enough can sometimes make long
distance communication difficult.
 Some government agencies try to predict radio propagation
conditions. The results of these are published in “Notices to
Mariners”.
 These give an indication of radio communication paths over
a 3 month period for a particular part of the Earth’s surface.
The Sun and Sun-spots
The 11 year Sun Spot cycle
Ionospheric prediction services
 These are constantly measuring the ionosphere
and publishing the results for radio users.
 The Australian IPS produces predictions for
Australia and New Zealand in the form of HAP
charts ( Hourly Area Predictions) found on the
BOM ( Australian Bureau of Meteorology) website

 http://www.ips.gov.au/HF_Systems/1/1/1
This HAP Chart is valid for that hour in the SW Pacific so at about 1600
local time .
 Skip Distance &
Skip Zone (The Zone of silence)
Ground wave,Direct wave & Sky wave
Summary of Ground wave and Sky wave
communications at sea.
 On the MF 2 MHz marine band ground wave is always
available out to about 170 miles day or night.
 During the day use 4,6 and 8 MHz bands
progressively up from about 150 to 1100 miles.
Beyond that distance 12,16 and 22 MHz bands.
 At night 2 MHz sky wave may give distances up to
1000 miles. Use progressively higher frequency
bands 4 MHz and up as distance requires it.
 Be aware that at dusk and dawn frequency changes
may be required to maintain communication paths
open.
The bands above 30 MHz
VHF UHF and SHF

 On the bands above 30 MHz the

Ionosphere has no affect. These radio
waves pass right through and travel out
into space.
 This makes them very suitable for radio
communications using earth orbiting
satellites
 They are also useful for communications
on the Earth’s surface. The major
limitation to using these frequencies is the
curvature of the Earth’s surface.
 The affect of the curvature of the Earth’s
surface is not uniform over the entire
VHF,UHF and SHF bands.
 It has less effect on VHF and is closer to
line of sight at SHF.
 At SHF radio waves will travel past the
visual horizon by about 6%.
 The only way to overcome this distance
limitation is to raise the height of the
aerials forming part of any radio
communication system.
VHF ranges
at sea
SUPER REFRACTION
Effect of a temperature inversion on VHF,UHF and
SHF radio.
I wish to acknowledge the following sources for
some of the pictures making up this presentation :
 The Radio Society of Great Britain
 Basic Electronics (1962)published by

The Technical Press

 Admiralty List of Radio Signals Vol.5

2005/06
 The Internet