PSYCHOLOGY FINAL Sig

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YEAR PROJECT RETREAT e
King’s House Conference Centre, Manchester
Wednesday 11th December 10am-4pm

Sessions Include:
Writing your Discussion
The Project Presentation
What next for me after
University?
Critical Evaluation
Statistics drop-in
Qualitative Methods
Applying for Master’s Lunch & refreshments provided!
 Training

Dr. David Hughes

Twitter: david_j_hughes
E-mail: [email protected]
Some key terminology

• What is learning? • What is training?

– New knowledge, might not be job – Specific knowledge
relevant. – Existing challenges
– Task focus
– People learn in three domains:
• Cognitive (knowledge/recall)
• Psychomotor (skills) • What is development?
• Affective (emotional/attitudinal) – General capabilities
– Future challenges
– Learning is not training, but models – Person focus
of learning influence training
design.
What is Training?

“A planned and systematic effort to modify or

develop knowledge/skill/attitude... Its purpose, in the
work situation, is to enable [the worker to] perform
adequately in a given task”
Buckley and Caple (2007)
Why do we need training?
• Impossible to recruit people with all required skills and knowledge

VUCA and Drivers of training need

• Globalisation • Competitive Advantage
• New technology • Merger/Acquisition
• Attracting and winning talent • Organisational change
• Talent shortages, e.g., leadership, • New or changing role
creativity • Re-organisation of teams
 Training Benefits
Individuals: Organisations: Society:

Develops skills 
Increased productivity 
Economic success of

Varied & interesting 
Staffing flexibility nations, related to
work. 
Safer workplace skill base.

Task performance is

Motivates employees
quicker, higher quality,

Improved well-being 
Economic
fewer errors. and organisational globalisation & rapid

Promotion opportunities commitment tech. development

Lower absenteeism and demands skill base is

More marketable up-to-date
turnover.
Your experience

• What training have you encountered?

• Topics? Methods?

• Was it successful… or not? Why?

• Was the training enjoyable… or not? Why?

An example: Cross-Cultural
Training
Dr. David Hughes
Twitter: david_j_hughes
E-mail: [email protected]
Cross-Cultural Training
• Cross-cultural training involves educating employees
and their families who are to be sent to a foreign
country (ex-patriots) about the business practices and
the cultural norms of different countries.

“process focused on promoting intercultural learning

through the acquisition of behavioral, cognitive, and
affective competencies required for effective
interactions across diverse cultures
(Morris & Robie, 2001).”
Littrell & Salas, 2005
Why Cross-Cultural Training?
• Ever increasing demand as globalisation grows.

• 10% to 50% of expatriates return early from their

assignments (Eschbach et al., 2001).
– Costs of failed expat work for MNCs range $250,000 to $1
million (Eschbach et al., 2001; Mervosh & McCleniahan,
1997).
– Many expatriates decide to leave their organization within
one year of returning to the home country (Global
Relocation Trends Survey Report, 2002)
Models of Culture
• Hofstede (1967 – 1973): Perhaps the most comprehensive study (> 50
countries) of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture
Power-Distance High: hierarchy within the company
Low: Less hierarchy, more power sharing
Individualism-Collectivism Ind: Preference for loose knit social framework (me)
Col: Close knit social framework (us)
Uncertainty Avoidance High: Avoid risk, uncomfortable with uncertainty
Low: High risk, comfortable with uncertainty
Restraint-Indulgence High: Fun is not for work, fun is for after work!
Low: Work is for fun (hedonism)
Masculinity-Femininity High: Power, achievement, competition
Low: cooperation, modesty, quality of life
Long-term Orientation High: Long-term goals
Low: Short-term goals
Models of Culture
Power-Distance
Example

 A company from Austria (low power distance) is considering

entering the Mexican (high power distance) market.

Power Distance Index

What tips might
you give the
Austrian manager?

13
Individualism-Collectivism
Example

A company from UK (high individualism) is considering

investing in Mexico (low individualism)

Individualism Index
14
Cultural assumptions
• The managers’ stern approach with her employees
discourages them from actively participating in meeting
discussions. Employees are expected to sit quietly in their
seats and speak only when spoken to. Conditioned in this
way, it’s not surprising they don’t feel free to speak out
and offer up their ideas; their shyness, however, should
not be mistaken for lack of interest.

• The writer makes a number of assumptions about

management, employees, meetings and the way they
should be… what are they?
Ethical Dilemmas

Your country believes in gender equality. What happens

when a woman from your country is treated by locals
as a ‘second-class’ citizen, following that country’s
customs?

What obligations does her company have to her?

How should she respond?
Training: The practicalities

Dr. David Hughes

Twitter: david_j_hughes
E-mail: [email protected]
Training Cycle
Training Needs Analysis
What training do you wish you had when
starting your degree?
Key skill for success Current ability Training solution

Efficient time management 1 2 3 4 5

Proactive problem solving 1 2 3 4 5

… 1 2 3 4 5
Training Methods
Most effective training strategies are created around
four basic principles:


They present relevant information / concepts to be
learned

They demonstrate the KSAs to be learned

They create opportunities for trainees to practise the
skills

They provide feedback to trainees during and after
practice
Training Design

Formal training

e.g. training courses, training videos; learning
technologies / distance training


Informal training

e.g. job rotation, outdoor training, coaching /
mentoring


In-house or out-of-house training
Formal: Teaching/Courses

In-person courses, videos, manuals: Widely used. Cheap alternative
to face to face. Ensures all employees receive standardised info.


e-learning: ‘learning that is supported or enabled by the use of information
and communications technology’ (Arnold et al. 2010)
Formal: Apprenticeships
Entry level training, 3 models: (i) workplace and offsite (colleges); (ii)
workplace and sessions within organisation; (iii) solely at workplace

Pros: Cons
• 3 – 5 years direct experience under 
Programme may be too long for some
guidance of trainer learners (and possibly too short for
others).
• Uses sound psychological principles
• Recognised award at end of training

Trainer may be using out of date
period – motivation. methods.

• High levels of skill can be attained 

Good apprentices may leave once trained.
• Apprentice ultimately becomes a 
Trainer/apprentice relationship may not
productive, paid member of staff be good.
Informal: Job Rotation

Advantages Disadvantages


Introduces new ideas / cultures 
Time needed to get up to speed

Allows understanding of what 
Settling in
people do 
Discontinuous management

Variety / stimulating style

Meeting other people 
Workload
(networking) 
Potential negative effect on

Break up cliques family (e.g. relocation)
Informal: Outdoor Training

Advantages Disadvantages

Everybody has same 
Ethics
starting point 
Personal risk

Taking away from (anxiety/physical)
normal environment 
Beyond what can be

Better for new teams reasonably asked

Re-energise old teams 
Relevance to job

Of questionable value!
Coaching / Mentoring
As a concept is becoming more popular;


Helping /advisory role

Coaching used often with more senior people

Mentoring typically involves a relationship between
young adult and more experienced person

Can involve people internally but also outside
consultants
“Whether or not [coaching] does what it proposes, however, remains largely
unknown because of the lack of empirical studies. Some also question
whether executive coaching is just another fad in the long list of fads that
have occurred in consultation and business.”
(Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001, p.205)
Location: In-house

Advantages: Disadvantages:

Tailor made course content and 
Only meet people from the
timing same organisation

Actual equipment, procedures and 
Interruptions to deal with
/ or work methods can be used actual work problems

Can be more cost effective 
Withdrawal more likely

Transfer of learning easier 
Unwillingness to discuss
things openly and honestly
Location: Iout-of-house

Advantages: Disadvantages:

People from other organisations 
Not specific to the organisations

Cannot be called away to deal with needs
actual work problems 
Availability and frequency set

Expensive training equipment can externally
be used 
If participants have to withdraw at

Can be more economical short notice fees may be non

Expert training staff available returnable

People may be more open

Possible problems in the transfer
of learning.
Training Cost and Effectiveness

Dr. David Hughes

Twitter: david_j_hughes
E-mail: [email protected]
Training Spend
“U.S. organizations spend more than $125 billion annually on employee
training and development (Paradise, 2007). At the same time, organizations
continue to question the true yield of their training expenditure.”
Blume et al, 2010, p. 1066


U.S. business training dollars:
• 1995: $51 billion (Bureau of Labor Statistics).
• 2006: $109 billion (American Society for Training and Development).


UK spend: £39-49 billion (e.g. Learning Skills Council, 2012)


Approx. 1-3% of overall budget
Is it worth it?
“Cost estimates indicate that only 10% of the [money] spent annually on training
and development programs resulted in an enduring behavioral change”
(Georgenson, 1982)

“Saks (2002) survey data...suggests about 40% of trainees fail to transfer

immediately after training, 70% falter in transfer 1 year after the program, and
ultimately only 50% of training investments result in organizational or
individual improvements”
Burke & Hutchins (2007)

“Less than 30% of what people learn gets used on the job”
Robinson & Robinson (1995)
Training Transfer Model

“Training transfer generally refers to the use of trained

knowledge and skill back on the job. For transfer to occur
‘learned behaviour must be generalised to the job context
and maintained over a period of time on the job’ (Baldwin
& Ford, 1988)”

Burke & Hutchins, 2007 p.265

Training Transfer
Factors influencing the effectiveness of training transfer
(Burke & Hutchins, 2007; Blume et al., 2010):

• Trainee variables?
– GMA, Conscientiousness, Openness-to-experience, Motivation,
Self-efficacy

• Training Design Variables?

– Job relevance, Practice & feedback, Behaviour modelling,
Error-based examples

• Cultural variables
– Supervisor support, peer support, opportunity to practice
Training Transfer Model
Motivation to learn: antecedents and outcomes

Chung, Zhan, Noe, Jiang, (2022) Meta

 A training transfer checklist
When What to do
Align training with the facility’s objectives
Before training
Ready the facility for training
Ready trainees to attend training
Facilitate a climate which encourages learning
Assess training design for appropriateness of content and delivery
During training
Use training to create a trainee mindset conducive to motivation and
learning
Enact plans to support use of the trained skills

After training Set goals and provide feedback on progress

Assess training effectiveness criteria including training transfer
Update the training program as needed

Hughes, Zajac, Spencer & Salas (2018)

Before we finish…
The following paper gives an overview of research into training over 100
years:

Bell, B. S., Tannenbaum, S. I., Ford, J. K., Noe, R. A., & Kraiger, K.
(2017). 100 years of training and development research: What we know
and where we should go. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102 (3), 305-
323.
Thank you