Computer Networks (CN)

(3150710)
3150710 – Computer Networks

Unit - 1
Introduction to Computer
Networks & Internet

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✓
Syllabus
Looping
Introduction to computer networks and Internet:
Understanding of network and Internet, The network edge, The
network core, Understanding of Delay, Loss and Throughput in
the packet switching network, protocols layers and their service
model, History of the computer network

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✓ Outline
• What
Looping is Computer Network?
• Advantages of Computer Network
• Applications of Computer Network
• Type of Computer Network
• What is Internet?
• The Network Edge & The Network Core
• Transmission Media
• Network Topologies
• Protocol Layers
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• Delay, Loss & Throughput
What is Computer Network?
🞂 Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to
share information and resources.

Network
Wireless
Devices

Computers

Wired

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Advantages of Computer Network
• Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file
server) that can be shared and made available to every user in an
organization.
• Connectivity: There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a
modern computer network. The effortlessness of joining makes it workable
for even youthful kids to start exploring the data.
• Faster Problem-solving: Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a
few littler procedures and each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets,
an explicit issue can be settled in lesser time.
• Reliability: Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason
equipment crashes, and so on, the information gets undermined or
inaccessible on one PC, and another duplicate of similar information is
accessible on another workstation for future use, which prompts smooth
working and further handling without interruption. 5
Advantages of Computer Network (Contd…)
• Flexible: This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the chance to
investigate everything about fundamental things, for example, programming without
influencing their usefulness.

• Security through Authorization: Security and protection of information are additionally

settled through the system. As just the system clients are approved to get to specific
records or applications, no other individual can crack the protection or security of
information.

• Storage capacity: Since you will share data, records, and assets with other individuals,
you need to guarantee all information and substance are legitimately put away in the
framework. With this systems administration innovation, you can do most of this with no
issue, while having all the space you require for capacity.

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Advantages of Computer Network

File Sharing Flexible Access

Better Communication
Entertainment

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Advantages of Computer Network

Internet Access Inexpensive System

Instant and Multiple Access Resource Sharing

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Disadvantages of Computer Networking
• Expensive: Execution of the network can be expensive in the case of an initial setup,
as the wires and the cost of the cable are high and sometimes equipment is also
costly.
• Virus and Malware: Computer Networking can lead to the spreading of viruses to
another computer through the network.
• Management of the network: Management of the Network is quite difficult as it
requires skilled persons to handle that large network. It requires training of people
who are employed in this work.
• Loss of Information: In case of a crash of the Computer Network, it can lead to the
loss of information or not being able to access information for some time.
• The system can be Hacked: In the case of Wide Area Networks(WAN), there is a
threat of Hacking of the System. Some security features should be added to prevent
such things.
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Applications of Computer Network
• Resource Sharing: Resource Sharing is one of the important applications of
Computer Networking. You can share a single software among Multiple users. We
can also share Hardware Devices via this technique.
• Communication: Communication Medium means various ways through which we
can communicate like Email Calls, broadcasts, etc.
• Business Applications: Business Application is also an important application of
Computer Networking. Almost all companies are doing business online with the help
of Computer Networking.
• Social Media: Social Media is one of the recent and widely used applications of
Computer Networking. It helps people in getting news, feed, current trending topics
of all types, etc.
• Access to Remote Information: Computer Networking helps in accessing remote
information from the end-users. For Example. details required for train tickets, plane
tickets, etc.
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Applications of Computer Network (Contd…)

• Online Education: Computer Networking has revolutionized education by

providing online learning platforms, distance education, and virtual classrooms.
• Remote Working: Networking technologies have enabled remote working, allowing
employees to work from home or other locations outside of the office. This has
become especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• E-commerce: Computer Networking has facilitated the growth of e-commerce by
allowing businesses to sell their products and services online and reach a global
market.
• Telemedicine: Networking technologies have also enabled telemedicine, allowing
doctors and healthcare providers to provide remote medical consultations and
diagnosis to patients in remote locations.
• Real-time Collaboration: Networking technologies enable real-time collaboration,
allowing people to work together on projects and share information in real-time, no
matter where they are located. 11
Applications of Computer Network

Email Services Teleconferencing

Business & Finance File & Directory Services

& Many More…. 12

Types of Computer Network
🞂Computer networks can be categories by their size as well as their purpose.
🞂The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area.
🞂Some of the different networks based on size are:

Network

Local Area Metropolitan Area Wide Area

Network Network Network
(LAN) (MAN) (WAN)

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Local Area Network
🞂 A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers within a
limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university campus or office building.

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Metropolitan Area Network
🞂 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that interconnects with computer in a
metropolitan area like city.
🞂 MAN is a larger than LAN but smaller than the area covered by a WAN.
🞂 It is also used to interconnection of several local area network.

Navagam
Morbi

Rajkot

Shapar
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Wide Area Network
🞂 A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that exists over a large-scale geographical
area.
🞂 A WAN connects different networks, including local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan
area networks (MAN).
🞂 It may be located with in a state or a country or it may be interconnected around the world.

Asia

America

Africa
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Types of Computer Networks - Summary

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Types of Computer Networks - Summary
Comparison LAN MAN WAN
Full Name Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network
Meaning A network that connects a Network
It covers relatively large It spans large locality &
group of computers in a region such as cities, towns connects countries
small geographical area together. e.g. Internet

Ownership of Network Private Private or Public Private or Public (VPN)

Design and Maintenance Easy Difficult Difficult
Propagation Delay Short Moderate Long
Speed High Moderate Low
Equipment Used NIC, Switch, Hub Modem, Router Microwave, Radio
Transmitter & Receiver
Range(Approximately) 1 to 10 km 10 to 100 km Beyond 100 km
Used for College, School, Hospital Small towns, City State, Country, Continent

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What is Internet?
🞂 The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.
🞂 The internet is the collection of infinite numbers of connected computers that are spread across the world.
🞂 We can also say that internet is a computer network that interconnects hundreds of millions of computing
devices throughout the world.
🞂 It is established as the largest network & sometimes called a network of a networks that consists of numerous
academic , business and government networks, which together carry various information.
🞂 When two computers connected over the internet, they can send & receive all kinds of information such as text,
graphics, video & computer programs.
Mobile Network
Global ISP
PC

server Home
wireless
links Network
Regional ISP
wireless Wired link
laptop

smartphone
router

Network Components Institutional

Network 19
What is Protocol?
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern (manages) data communications.
• Protocols define methods of communication, how to communicate, when to communicate etc.
• A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed.
• Important elements of protocols are
• 1. Syntax 2. Semantics 3. Timing
• Syntax:- Syntax means format of data or the structure how it is presented e.g. first eight bits are for sender address, next eight
bits are for receiver address and rest of the bits for message data.
• Semantics:- Semantics is the meaning of each section of bits e.g. the address bit means the route of transmission or final
destination of a message.
• Timing:- Timing means, at what time data can be sent and how fast data can be sent.
• Example: HTTP, IP, FTP etc…
Protocol is define
format, order of
message that sent
and received among
network entities, and
actions taken on
message
transmission and
reception.
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The Network Edge
🞂 Computers and other devices are connected at the edge (end) of the network.
🞂 These computers are known as hosts or end systems. Router is known as edge router.

mobile network
Global ISP

Home
Network
Regional ISP

Institutional
Network
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Peer to Peer Network

🞂 Computers are connected together so that users can share resources and information.

🞂 There is no central server for authenticating users, or storing files and each of them works as
both client and server.
🞂 This means that users must remember which computers in the workgroup have the shared
resource or information that they want to access.

🞂 e.g. Bit Torrent

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Client – Server Network
🞂 A client/server network is a system where one or more computers called clients to connect to a central
computer named as a server to share or use resources.
🞂 The client requests a service from a server, which may include running an application, querying a
database, printing a document, performing a backup or recovery procedure. The request made by the
client is handled by a server.
🞂 A client/server network is that in which the files and resources are centralized. This means that the
server can hold them and other computers (Client) can access them.
🞂 Client: Request servers for a task.
✔ Generally called desktop PCs or workstations.
🞂 Server: Receive requests from the clients.
Process and response them.
✔ e.g. Web Server, Email Server

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The Network Core
🞂 Defines the connection of different network segments together and process to transmit data
packets across the network.
🞂 It is implemented through the use of switching techniques.
🞂 Switching in computer network helps in deciding the best route for data transmission if there
are multiple paths in a larger network.

Switched
Networks

Circuit-Switched Packet-Switched
Networks Networks

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Circuit Switched Network
🞂 In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the dedicated
path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
🞂 Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
🞂 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice, video, a
request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the acknowledgment to
ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated
path transfers the data.
🞂 No out of order
🞂 Setup dedicated path - no header
🞂 Less Efficient (resources reserve)
🞂 Delay is minimal

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Circuit Switched Network (Cont…)
🞂 Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:
1. Circuit Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Circuit Disconnect

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 Packet Switched Network
🞂 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
🞂 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique number to identify their order at
the receiving end.
🞂 Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination address and sequence number.
🞂 Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
🞂 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
🞂 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
🞂 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be sent.
🞂 Store and forward

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TYPES OF PACKET SWITCHING
I. Connection less (Datagram Packet switching)
II. Connection oriented (Virtual Circuit Switching)

Connection less (Datagram Packet switching)

• It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered
as an independent entity.
• Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch uses this information
to forward the packet to the correct destination.
• The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
• Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
• Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
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Connection oriented (Virtual Circuit Switching)

• Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

• In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
• Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender
and receiver.
• In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection

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Difference between Datagram Switching & Virtual Switching
Datagram Switching Virtual Switching
Connectionless Connection oriented
No reservation Reservations
Out of order Same Order
High Overhead Less Overhead
Packet lost Packet lost
Used in internet X.25, ATM
Cost Cost
Efficiency Efficiency
Delay Delay

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Difference between Circuit Switching & Packet Switching
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
🞂Dedicated path between source and 🞂No dedicated path
destination
🞂All packets use same path 🞂Packets travel independently
🞂Reserve the entire bandwidth in advance 🞂Does not reserve bandwidth
🞂Bandwidth wastage 🞂No bandwidth wastage
🞂No store and forward transmission 🞂Supports store and forward
transmission

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Throughput in network
What is throughput?

🞂 Throughput is a measure of how many units of information, a system can process in a

given amount of time.
🞂 In data transmission, network throughput is the amount of data moved successfully from
one place to another in a given time period.
🞂 Network throughput is typically measured in bits per second (bps), as in megabits per
second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (Gbps).

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Delay in data packet transmission
🞂 Here are some of the types of delays that can occur in packet switching:
1. Transmission Delay: The time taken to transmit a packet from the host to the transmission
medium is called Transmission delay.
It is affected by the size of the packet and the bandwidth of the link.

For example,
if bandwidth is 1 bps (every second 1 bit can be transmitted onto the transmission medium) and data
size is 20 bits then what is the transmission delay?
If in one second, 1 bit can be transmitted. To transmit 20 bits, 20 seconds would be required.

Let B bps is the bandwidth and L bit is the size of the data then transmission delay is,
Tt = L/B 33
2. Propagation delay: After the packet is transmitted to the transmission medium, it has to go
through the medium to reach the destination.
Hence the time taken by the last bit of the packet to reach the destination is called propagation
delay.

Factors affecting propagation delay:

🞂 Distance – It takes more time to reach the destination if the distance of the medium is longer.
🞂 Velocity – If the velocity(speed) of the medium is higher, the packet will be received faster.
Tp = Distance / Velocity
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3. Queueing delay:
🞂 Let the packet is received by the destination, the packet will not be processed by the
destination immediately.
🞂 It has to wait in a queue in something called a buffer.
🞂 So the amount of time it waits in queue before being processed is called queueing delay.
4. Processing delay:
Now the packet will be taken for the processing which is called processing delay.
🞂 Time is taken to process the data packet by the processor that is the time required by
intermediate routers to decide where to forward the packet, update TTL, perform header
checksum calculations.
🞂 It also doesn’t have any formula since it depends upon the speed of the processor and the
speed of the processor varies from computer to computer.

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Question
Find transmission delay for transmission of 1500 bytes (12000 bits) using a
transmission rate of 100Mbps.
Solution:
Let B bps is the bandwidth and L bit is the size of the data then transmission
delay is,
Tt = L/B
Convert packet size to bits:
1500 bytes
= 1500 × 8 bits
= 12000 bits

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Transmission rate:
100 Mbps
= 100 × 10^6 bits/second
Transmission delay = 12000 bits / 100 × 10^6 bits/second
= 0.00012 seconds

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Transmission Media

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Transmission Media
🞂 A transmission media can be defined as any medium that can carry information from a source to
a destination. These transmission media may be of two types −

Transmission Media

Guided Media Unguided Media

(Wired) (Wireless)

Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber Optic Infrared

Radio Wave Microwave
Cable Cable Cable Wave

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Guided Media
🞂 Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a fixed
path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.
🞂 It is also known as Bounded media.
🞂 Three Guided (physical) media commonly used for data transmission are:

Twisted Pair Coaxial Fiber Optic

Cable Cable Cable

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Twisted Pair Cable
🞂 It is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
🞂 It is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
🞂 Installation of the cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable.
🞂 The frequency range for cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
🞂 It consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

🞂 Why cable is twisted?

⮩ If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires
because they are at different locations relatives to the noise or crosstalk sources.
⮩ This results in a difference at the receiver.
⮩ By twisting the pair, a balance is maintained.
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Twisted Pair Cable (Cont…)
🞂 Separately insulated
🞂 It is widely used in different kinds of data and voice infrastructure.
🞂 The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic
induction.
🞂 Two types of twisted pair cable:

UTP STP
(Unshielded Twisted Pair) (Shielded Twisted Pair)

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 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
🞂 An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
🞂 Following are the categories of UTP:
⮩ Category 1: Used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
⮩ Category 2 & 3 : It can support upto 4Mbps & 16Mbps.
⮩ Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps.
▪ Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
⮩ Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

🞂 Advantages:
⮩ It is cheap.
⮩ Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
⮩ It can be used for high-speed LAN.
🞂 Disadvantage:
⮩ This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation
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Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
🞂 A STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering to block external interference that allows
the higher transmission rate.
🞂 The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
🞂 An installation of STP is easy.
🞂 It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
🞂 Used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
🞂 The DSL lines use by telephone companies use the
high-bandwidth capability of STP cables.
🞂 Used in exterior network(outside of building).

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Coaxial Cable
Sheath Insulator

Plastic cover Inner

Outer conductor
(shield) Conductor

🞂 The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
🞂 It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
🞂 The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
🞂 The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference). 45
Coaxial Cable (Cont…)
🞂 Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial n/w could
carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single
coaxial cable could carry digital data upto 600 mbps.
🞂 However , coaxial cable in telephone networks has largely been replaced today with fiber
optic cable.
🞂 It has excellent noise immunity.
🞂 It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.

🞂 Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission:
⮩ It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission:
⮩ It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.
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Coaxial Cable (Cont….)

🞂Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

⮩ The data can be transmitted at high speed.
⮩ It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
⮩ It provides higher bandwidth.

🞂Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

⮩ It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
⮩ If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

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Fiber Optic Cable
🞂 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
🞂 Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid.

🞂 The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the core, to
keep all the light in the core.
🞂 Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding.
🞂 The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference
from other types of wiring.
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Basic elements of Fibre optic cable
🞂 Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A core
is a light transmission area of the fibre.
▪ The more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
🞂 Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding.
▪ The main functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted
through the fibre.
🞂 Jacket:The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket.
▪ The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra fibre
protection.

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Fiber Optic Cable – Advantages
🞂It provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
🞂It carries the data at a longer distance as compared to copper cable.
🞂Small size & weight.
🞂Better Reliability.
🞂Used in high bandwidth network.
🞂High data rate & lower attenuation.

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Fiber Optic Cable – Disadvantages
🞂The cost of installing fiber optic cables is higher than that of traditional copper cables.
🞂Fiber optic cables are made of glass or plastic, making them more fragile compared to
copper cables. They can be more easily damaged if bent excessively, crushed, or
exposed to harsh environmental conditions.

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Unguided Media
🞂An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium.
🞂Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
🞂In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can
flow easily.
🞂Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

1. Radio wave
2. Microwave
3. Infrared Wave

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 Radio Wave
🞂 Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that
are transmitted in all the directions of free space.
🞂 Radio waves are omnidirectional, which means
that signals travel in all directions.
🞂 The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3
KHz to 300 GHz.
🞂 In the case of radio waves, the sending and
receiving antennas are not aligned, thus the wave
sent by the sending antenna can be received by
any receiving antenna.
🞂 An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

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Radio Wave (Cont….)
🞂 Applications:
🞂 A Radio wave is useful for broadcasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
🞂 Radio waves are used by FM radio, television, and cordless phones.
🞂 Advantages:
🞂 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile phones.
🞂 It covers a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
🞂 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
🞂 Disadvantages:
🞂 Radio waves, particularly those in lower frequency bands, offer limited bandwidth. This can
result in lower data transmission rates compared to other forms of wireless communication, such
as microwave or infrared.
🞂 As radio waves travel, their signal strength diminishes over distance, leading to attenuation. This
requires the use of repeaters or amplifiers to maintain signal strength over long distances.
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Microwave
Microwaves are of two types:

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Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
🞂 It is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based
microwave transmission antenna to another.
🞂 Microwaves are generally an electromagnetic wave which has the frequency in the range from
1GHz to 1000 GHz.
🞂 Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned which is
present at km away.

🞂 Antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km away.
🞂 It works on the line-of-sight transmission which means the antennas mounted on the towers are
the direct sight of each other.
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Characteristics

🞂 Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to
21-23 GHz.
🞂 Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
🞂 Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
🞂 Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
🞂 Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.

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🞂 Advantages:
⮩ Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.
⮩ It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
⮩ Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of cable in
terrain is quite a difficult task.
⮩ Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission .

🞂 Disadvantages:
⮩ Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user can
catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
⮩ Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave transmission.
⮩ Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
⮩ Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave transmission.

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Satellite Microwave Communication
🞂 It is used for broadcasting and receiving signals. It acts as a repeater as it only receives the signal and
retransmits it.
🞂 A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
🞂 Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and fibre
optic systems.
🞂 We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
🞂 How Does Satellite work?
⮩ The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies the
signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

59
 Satellite Microwave Communication (Cont…..)
🞂 Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:
⮩ The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
⮩ The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the center of the
coverage area.
⮩ Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
⮩ It is easy to install.
⮩ It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

🞂 Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

⮩ Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
⮩ The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in
orbit.
⮩ The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the satellite
has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.
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Infrared wave
🞂 An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short ranges.
🞂 The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
🞂 It is used for short-range communication.
🞂 For Example, The most popular example of infrared transmission that we daily come across is
your remote that you use to operate AC, television, music system, etc. The remote emits
infrared waves which are received by the television and according to perform the action.
🞂 Other examples are, the data transfer between two cell phones, data transfer between a
computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.

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Infrared Wave - Characteristics
🞂 Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.
🞂 Therefore, the infrared communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby
rooms.
🞂 An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
🞂 Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere
with the infrared waves.

62
Network Topologies

63
Network Topologies
🞂 Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components (links, nodes, etc.)
are interconnected to each other.
🞂 Types of network topologies :
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid

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Bus Topology
🞂 The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the
stations are connected through a single cable known as a
backbone cable.
🞂 Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by
drop cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
🞂 The backbone cable is considered as a "single
lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the
stations.
🞂 When a node wants to send a message over the network, it
puts a message over the network.
🞂 All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
🞂 The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and
802.4 standard networks used in small networks.
🞂 Easy to expand joining two cables together.
🞂 It is used in early LAN connection. 65
Bus Topology – Advantages
🞂If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
🞂 Low-cost cable:
⮩ The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
🞂 Moderate data speeds:
⮩ Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support
upto 10 Mbps.
🞂 Familiar technology:
⮩ Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
🞂 Limited failure:
⮩ A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
66
Bus Topology – Disadvantages

🞂A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

🞂If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
🞂If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
🞂Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
🞂Security is very low.

“A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in
cable television networks.”

67
Ring Topology
🞂 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer
is connected to another computer, with the last one connected to
the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.
🞂 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large
number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to
the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data
will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence
to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
🞂 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology.
🞂 In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data
flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the
second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.

68
Ring Topology – Advantages
🞂 Network Management:
⮩ Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network
down.
🞂 Product availability:
⮩ Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are
available.
🞂 Cost:
⮩ Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation
cost is very low.
🞂 Reliable:
⮩ It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent
on the single host computer.

69
Ring Topology – Disadvantages
🞂 Difficult troubleshooting:
⮩ It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault
occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
🞂 Failure:
⮩ The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
🞂 Reconfiguration difficult:
⮩ Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
🞂 Delay:
⮩ Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.

70
Star Topology
🞂 In this type of topology all the computers are connected
to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.
🞂 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
🞂 Fast performance – “with few nodes and low network
traffic.”
🞂 Only that node is affected which has failed and rest of
the nodes can work smoothly.
🞂 Hub can be upgraded easily.
🞂 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
🞂 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial
cable.

71
Star Topology - Advantages
🞂If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
🞂Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
🞂It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
🞂Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.

72
Star Topology - Disadvantages
🞂Cost of installation is high.
🞂If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
🞂Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

73
Mesh Topology
🞂 Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
🞂 There are multiple paths from one computer to another
computer.
🞂 It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer
which acts as a central point of communication.
🞂 Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations
where communication failures are a critical concern.
🞂 Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
🞂 Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2
🞂 Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

74
Mesh topology is divided into two categories
• Fully connected mesh topology
• Partially connected mesh topology

• Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
• Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
75
Mesh Topology - Advantages
🞂 Reliable:
⮩ The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will
not affect the communication between connected computers.
🞂 Fast Communication:
⮩ Communication is very fast between the nodes.
🞂 Easier Reconfiguration:
⮩ Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.

76
Mesh Topology - Disadvantages
🞂 Cost:
⮩ A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router
and more transmission media than other topologies.
🞂 Management:
⮩ Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link
failure goes undetected.
🞂 Efficiency:
⮩ In this, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the
network.

77
Tree Topology

🞂It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
🞂Also called hierarchical topology.
🞂 It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
🞂Mostly used in Wide Area Network – WAN.
🞂Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
🞂Easily managed and maintained. 78
Tree Topology - Advantages
🞂 Extension of bus and star topologies.
🞂 Support for broadband transmission:
⮩ Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long
distances without being attenuated.
🞂 Easily expandable:
⮩ We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is
easily expandable.
🞂 Easily manageable:
⮩ In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star networks which can
be easily managed and maintained.
🞂 Error detection:
⮩ Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
🞂 Limited failure:
⮩ The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
79
Tree Topology - Disadvantages
🞂 Difficult troubleshooting:
⮩ If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the
problem.
🞂 High cost:
⮩ Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
🞂 Failure:
⮩ A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
🞂 Reconfiguration difficult:
⮩ If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

80
Hybrid Topology

🞂 A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology.
🞂 It is a combination of two or more topologies.
🞂 Flexible & reliable as error detection and easy to troubleshoot.
🞂 Scalable as size can be increased easily. 81
Comparison of Topologies

Bus Ring Star Mesh Tree

Means Every computer Each computer All the All the network It has a root
and network is connected to computers are nodes are node and all
device is another, with connected to a connected to other nodes are
connected to the last one single hub each other. connected to it
single cable. connected to through a cable. forming a
the first. hierarchy.

Cost Average Cheap High High High

Used in Small Network Expand Small Network Expand Expand
Network Network Network
Troubleshoot Easy, But Difficult; Easy; Difficult; Easy;
Cables fail then Failure of one If the hub fails Installation and Central root
whole network computer then the whole configuration is hub fails,
fails. disturbs the network is difficult. network fails.
whole network. down.

82
Protocol Layers

83
Protocols Layers
🞂To deals with connecting systems that are open for communication with other systems.
🞂OSI Layer Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
🞂Developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) with seven different
layers.
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

84
Example – Air Plane Travel

Departure Arrival

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

85
Why do we need the OSI Model?
🞂 To address the problem of networks increasing in size and in number, the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) researched many network schemes and recognized that there was a need to
create a network model
🞂 This would help network builders implement networks that could communicate and work together
🞂 ISO therefore, released the OSI reference model in 1984
🞂 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework used in computer
networking to standardize the functions of a telecommunication or computing system, irrespective of
its underlying internal structure and technology.
🞂 IMPORTANT FUNCTIONALITIES-
i. Access Control
ii. Error Control
iii. Flow Control
iv. Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
v. & so on….
86
Open System Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model

87
Physical Layer

🞂 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the
next.

88
Physical Layer
🞂 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
🞂 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
🞂 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
🞂 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
🞂 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
🞂This layer will get the signal and send it to the Data Link layer.
🞂Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices

89
Functions of a Physical layer
🞂 Line Configuration:
⮩ It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected physically.
🞂 Signals:
⮩ It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
🞂 Multiplexing:
⮩ It helps to send multiple signals from single channel from sender side and can demultiplexing on
receiver’s side.
🞂 Bit rate control:
⮩ It also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
🞂 Physical topologies:
⮩ It specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star,
or mesh topology.
🞂 Transmission mode:
⮩ It also defines the way in which the data flows between the two connected devices.
⮩ The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex. 90
Physical Layer (Cont…)
🞂Carries the bit stream over a physical media.
🞂Physical Layer is concerned with:
⮩ Interface and Medium like guided cables
⮩ Representation of bits
⮩ Data rate
⮩ Synchronization of bits
⮩ Line configuration
⮩ Physical topology
⮩ Transmission mode

91
Data Link Layer

🞂The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.

92
Data-Link Layer
🞂 This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
🞂It provides hop-to-hop delivery.
🞂 It defines the format of the data on the network.
🞂 It provides a reliable and efficient communication.
🞂 It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
🞂 When an information arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit
it to the Host using its MAC address
🞂 Information in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame
🞂Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of
host machines
🞂Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
93
Data-Link Layer
🞂Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
🞂Logical Link Control Layer
⮩ It is responsible for transferring the frames to the Network layer.
⮩ It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
⮩ It also provides flow control.
⮩ Error detection, using Ethernet trailer field frame check sequence (FCS).
🞂Media Access Control Layer
⮩ Provides physical addressing
⮩ It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
🞂The packets received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending
on the frame size of NIC (Network Interface Card).
🞂DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
94
Functions of the Data-link layer
🞂 Framing:
⮩ Framing is a function of the data link layer.
⮩ The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into Frames.
⮩ Breaks messages into frames and reassembles frames into messages
⮩ Attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
⮩ The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame.

Header Data Trailer

🞂 Physical Addressing:
⮩ The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains destination and source
addresses.
⮩ The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the header.
95
Functions of the Data-link layer
🞂 Flow Control:
⮩ It is the main functionality of the Data-link layer.
⮩ It is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that no
data get corrupted.
🞂 Error Control:
⮩ Adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link
layer's trailer.
⮩ The CRC is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer.
⮩ If any error seems to occur, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission
of the corrupted frames.
⮩ Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.
🞂 Access Control:
⮩ When two or more devices are connected to the same communication channel, then the data link
layer protocols are used to define which device has control over the communication link at a
given time.
96
Data Link Layer (Cont…)
🞂Data link layer is concerned with:
⮩ Framing – divide bits stream into data unit (frame)
⮩ Physical addressing
⮩ Flow control – avoid over overwhelming
⮩ Error control – bit loses, retransmission
⮩ Access control

97
Network Layer

🞂The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source
host to the destination host (or machine to machine delivery).
🞂Routers and switches devices are used in this layer.

98
Functions of Network Layer
🞂 Internetworking:
⮩ An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer.
⮩ It provides a logical connection between different devices.
🞂 Addressing:
⮩ In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme.
⮩ A Network layer adds the source and destination IP addresses to the header of the frame.
⮩ Addressing is used to identify the device uniquely and universally on the internet.
🞂 Routing:
⮩ Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the best optimal path out of the
multiple paths from source to the destination.
🞂 Packetizing:
⮩ A Network Layer receives the data in segments from the upper layer and converts them into packets.
⮩ This process is known as Packetizing.
⮩ It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
99
Network Layer (Cont…)
🞂In this layer, packet is combined with header and data.
🞂In case of data link layer, packet delivers on the same network.
🞂If two different networks are connected then packet is concern with network layer.
🞂Network layer is concerned with:
⮩ Logical addressing e.g. 192.168.1.1 (IP Address)
⮩ Routing

100
Transport Layer

🞂The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to
another.

101
Functions of Transport Layer
🞂 At sender’s side:
⮩ Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation.
⮩ Implements Flow (speed according to receivers capacity and size of message)
& Error control to ensure proper data transmission.
⮩ It also adds Source and Destination port numbers (which is associated with the
receiver’s application) in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.
⮩ Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually.
⮩ For example, a web server typically uses port number 80 by default.
🞂 At receiver’s side:
⮩ Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data that
it has received to the respective application.
⮩ It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data. 102
Functions of Transport Layer (Cont…)

⮚ Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it,
splits the message into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the
smaller units down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
⮚ Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
⮚ The transport layer header information must then include control information,
such as message start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the
other end to recognize message boundaries.
⮚ Reassembling: If the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header
must contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving
end to get the pieces back together in the right order before handing the received
message up to the layer above.
103
Transport Layer (Cont…)
🞂This layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order.
🞂Transport layer is concerned with:
⮩ End to End delivery (Process to process or port to port delivery)
⮩ Segmentation and Reassembly
⮩ Flow and Congestion Control (message size and its window size or capacity, send
by receiver to sender)
⮩ Error Control (by using checksum)

104
Session Layer

🞂The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

105
Functions of Session layer
🞂Session establishment, maintenance, and termination:
🞂The layer allows the processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
🞂Dialog control:
🞂Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two processes.
🞂In simple words, it allows the communication between two processes which can be
either half-duplex or full-duplex.
🞂 Synchronization:
🞂Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence.
🞂If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint.
🞂This process is known as synchronization and recovery.
🞂Data loss is avoided by it.
106
Session Layer (Cont…)
🞂This layer is network dialog controller – establishes, maintains, synchronizes the
interaction among computers.
🞂Session layer is concerned with:
⮩ Dialog control
⮩ Synchronization
🞂Session layer is responsibility of any application which we are using , its not duty of
operating system of the machine.

107
Presentation Layer

🞂The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.

108
Presentation Layer
🞂The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer (Code Conversion).
🞂The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.
🞂This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
🞂The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

109
Functions of Presentation layer
🞂 Translation:
⮩ It acts as a data translator for a network, for example, ASCII to EBCDIC
⮩ The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of character strings, numbers and
so on.
⮩ Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods.
⮩ It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the common
format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
🞂 Encryption/ Decryption:
⮩ Encryption is needed to maintain privacy.
⮩ Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
⮩ The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
⮩ A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data
🞂 Compression:
⮩ Data compression reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network
⮩ Compress data by removing redundant data.
⮩ Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio, video. 110
Presentation Layer (Cont…)
🞂This layer is concerned with the syntax which refers to order in which data is
presented and semantics helps in interpreting a particular pattern.
🞂Presentation layer is responsible for:
⮩ Translation
⮩ Encryption
⮩ Compression

111
Application Layer

🞂The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

112
Application Layer
🞂Application layer, which is implemented by the network applications is the top most
layer of the ISO OSI Reference Model.
🞂These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
🞂This layer also serves as a window for users and the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
🞂It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
🞂This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
⮩ Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
🞂Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

113
Functions of Application layer
🞂 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM):
🞂An application layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
🞂 Mail services:
🞂An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
🞂Directory services:
🞂An application provides the distributed database sources and is used to provide that
global information about various objects.

114
Application Layer (Cont…)
🞂This layer provides various services like:
⮩ Network virtual terminal
⮩ File transfer, access and management
⮩ Mail services
⮩ Directory services

115
Summary – OSI Layer

To allow access to
Application network resource
To translate, encrypt and
compress data Presentation
To establish, manage
Session and terminate sessions
To provide reliable
process-to-process message
delivery and error recovery Transport
To move packets from
source to destination; To
Network provide internetworking
To organize bits into
frames; To provide hop- Data link
to-hop delivery To transmit bits over a
medium; To provide
Physical
mechanical & electrical
specification
116
TCP/IP Reference Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
🞂 It was originally defined as having five layers.
🞂 TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to share
resources across the network.
1. Application Layer 1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer 2. Transport Layer (Host-to-Host Transport Layer)
3. Network Layer 3. Network Layer (Internet Layer)
4. Data Link Layer 4. Network Interface Layer (Network Access Layer)
5. Physical Network

117
TCP/IP Model Architecture

118
Application Layer

⮚ The application layer is the topmost layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model.
⮚ The application layer is present on the top of the Transport layer.
⮚ Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and how host programs
interface with Transport layer services to use the network.
⮚ Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like
• DNS (Domain Naming System),
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol),
• Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
• TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol),
• SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol),
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol),
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

119
Transport Layer
⮚ The purpose of the Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and destination
hosts to carry on a conversation.
⮚ Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection used when
transporting data.
⮚ The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by delivering data from an
application to its remote peer.
⮚ The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which provides:
▪ Reliable delivery data
▪ Duplicate data suppression
▪ Congestion control
▪ Flow control
⮚ Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which provides:
▪ Connectionless
▪ Unreliable
▪ Best-effort service
⮚ UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate the
loss of some data.
120
Network Layer (Internet Layer)
⮚The internet layer also called the network layer.
⮚Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain source and destination
address (logical address or IP address) information that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and
across networks.
⮚The Internet layer is also responsible for the routing of IP datagrams.
⮚Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer.
⮚It is a connectionless protocol that does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does not provide
reliability, flow control or error recovery.
⮚IP provides a routing function that attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their destination.
⮚These message units in an IP network are called an IP datagram.
⮚Example: IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP.

Network Interface Layer (Network Access Layer)

⮚ The Network Access Layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model and is responsible for defining how data
is physically transmitted over the network.
⮚ Network Access Layer defines details of how data is physically sent through the network, including how
bits are electrically or optically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network
medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.
⮚ The protocols included in Network Access Layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay etc.
121
Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model

OSI TCP/IP
It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI model has been developed by ISO (International Standard It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Organization). Agency Network).
It has 7 layers It has 4 layers
In this model, the session and presentation layer are not
In this model, the session and presentation layers are separated, different layers. Both layers are included in the application
i.e., both the layers are different.
layer.
The network layer of the OSI model provides both connection- The Network layer in the TCP/IP model provides
oriented and connectionless service. connectionless service.
In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a guarantee for The transport layer does not provide the surety for the delivery
the delivery of the packets. of packets. But still, we can say that it is a reliable model.
Protocols in the OSI model are hidden and can be easily In this model, the protocol cannot be easily replaced.
replaced when the technology changes.
The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.
It is also known as a reference model through which various It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
networks are built. For example, the TCP/IP model is built
from the OSI model. It is also referred to as a guidance tool.
122
Outline - Revised

🞂What is Computer Network? Connected each other

🞂Advantages of Computer Network
🞂Applications of Computer Network
🞂Type of Computer Network LAN, MAN, WAN
🞂What is Internet? Infinite nos. of connected computers across the world
🞂What is Protocol? Set of Rules
🞂The Network Edge Host-end system & edge router
🞂The Network Core Circuit Switched & Packet Switched
🞂Transmission Media Guided- Wired & Unguided-Wireless
🞂Network Topologies Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree, & Hybrid
🞂Protocol Layers OSI Layer & TCP/IP Layer
🞂Delay, Loss & Throughput 123
Delay, Loss & Throughput
🞂Delay
⮩ As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the subsequent node (host or
router) along this path, the packet suffers from several types of delays at each node
along the path.

dnodal = Tproc + Tqueue + Ttran + Tprop

Where

dnodal = Total Delay

Tproc = Processing Delay
Tqueue = Queuing Delay
Ttran = Transmission Delay
Tprop = Propagation Delay 124
🞂Processing Delay (Tproc)
⮩ The time required to examine the packets header and determine where to direct the
packet.
⮩ To check bit level error
⮩ Determine output link
⮩ Delay in terms of microseconds

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🞂Queuing Delay (Tqueue)
⮩ A time to wait at output link for transmission.
⮩ Depends on congestion level of router.
⮩ If queue is empty, then delay will be zero.
⮩ If queue is full (heavy traffic) then delay will be long.
⮩ Delay in terms of microsecond to millisecond.

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🞂Transmission Delay (Ttran = L/B)
⮩ An amount of time required for the router to transmit the packet.
⮩ It is depending on packet length(L) and transmission rate(B) of link.

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🞂Propagation Delay (Tprop= d/s)
⮩ A time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router B.
⮩ Depends on the length of physical medium(d) link and propagation speed(s) of
link
⮩ Delay in terms of millisecond.

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Packet Loss
🞂Packet loss is the failure of one or more transmitted packets to arrive at their
destination.
🞂The loss of data packets depends on the switch queue/buffer. The loss of data packets
increases with the increases in the traffic intensity.
🞂It affects the performance of the network.

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Throughput
🞂Throughput or Network Throughput is the rate of successful message delivery over a
communication channel. (amount of message delivered in given time).
🞂Throughput is measured in bits(data) per second (bit/s or bps).

server, link link Client

with capacity capacity
file of F Rs Rc
bits bits/sec bits/sec
send to
client

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History of Computer Networks

🞂1961-1972 : The development of Packet Switching

🞂1972-1980 : Proprietary Network and Internetworking
🞂1980-1990 : A Proliferation of Networks
🞂1990s : The Internet Explosion
🞂Recent Developments…

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Outline - Revised

🞂What is Computer Network? Connected each other

🞂Advantages of Computer Network
🞂Applications of Computer Network
🞂Type of Computer Network LAN, MAN, WAN
🞂What is Internet? Infinite nos. of connected computers across the world
🞂What is Protocol? Set of Rules
🞂The Network Edge Host-end system & edge router
🞂The Network Core Circuit Switched & Packet Switched
🞂Transmission Media Guided- Wired & Unguided-Wireless
🞂Network Topologies Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree, & Hybrid
🞂Protocol Layers OSI Layer & TCP/IP Layer
🞂Delay, Loss & Throughput 132
Thank you……

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