Determinin

g the
Truth
LESSON 2
Truth is an important idea in
philosophy. People search for truth,
which is why philosophy exists. But
truth can be hard to find, and
philosophers agree there isn’t one
perfect way to define it. They think
truth can depend on a person’s beliefs
or point of view.
Philosophy is different from other
subjects because it uses reasoning
and clear thinking to study truth.
Philosophers ask questions and use
logic to understand how we know
things and how to find the truth in
life.
This lesson talks about ideas
from modern philosophers
about truth. By learning these
ideas, you can better
understand and find truth in
your own life
 Truth,
Fact, and
Opinion
Fact: A fact is something real
and proven by evidence. For
example, if a student skips
classes and fails tests, these are
facts because they can be
observed and confirmed.
Truth: Truth is understanding
the deeper reality behind
the facts. For example, a
student may seem lazy (a
fact), but the truth could be
that they’re dealing with
personal problems or
struggles that affect their
Opinion: An opinion is what
someone thinks or feels. It
doesn’t need to be based on
facts or truth, and different
people can have different
opinions.
How to Know the Truth:
Philosophers use logic and
reasoning to figure out
what’s true or false.
Theorie
s of
Truth
The Correspondence Theory says a
statement is true if it matches
reality. For example:
•"Birds can fly" is true because most
birds can fly.
•"Cats can bark" is false because
cats cannot bark.
This idea has been around
for a long time, starting
with ancient philosophers
like Plato. Later, modern
thinkers like Bertrand
Russell and Ludwig
Wittgenstein called it
the correspondence theory.
The Challenge: The problem with
this theory is figuring out if words
and statements always match
reality. For example:
•Do words really show what we
think or feel?
Aristotle said that
words are symbols
for what we
experience in our
minds.
EXERCIS
E8
A belief is true if it matches a fact in
the real world. It is false if it doesn’t.
The mind creates beliefs, but truth
depends on facts, not on the mind.
Beliefs are true when they match
reality and false when they don’t.
1. How did Russell connect
belief with truth?
2.What constitutes truth?
3.What constitutes falsehood?
4. According to Russell, what do
minds create?
In short, truth comes from
facts, and falsehood
happens when there’s no
fact to match the belief.
Now we need to figure out
how to check if a belief is
true or false.
EXAMPLE
Belief: "The Earth is round."
•True: This belief matches the
fact, so it’s true.
•False: If someone believes "The
Earth is flat," it doesn’t match
reality, so it’s false.
Belief: "I left my keys on the
table."
•True: If the keys are actually on
the table, the belief is true.
•False: If the keys are in your
bag or somewhere else, the
belief is false.
Belief: "There are 5 apples in the
basket."
•True: If you count and find 5
apples, it’s true.
•False: If there are fewer or
more apples, the belief is false.
1. How did Russell connect belief with
truth?
Russell explained that a belief is true if
it matches a fact in the real world.
Truth happens when the objects and
relationships in a belief correspond to
something real. If they don’t match
reality, the belief is false.
What constitutes truth?
Truth is when a belief corresponds to
a fact in the real world. For example, if
you believe "the sky is blue" and it
really is blue, the belief is true because
it matches reality.
3. What constitutes falsehood?
Falsehood happens when a belief
does not correspond to any fact in the
real world. For example, if you believe
"it is raining," but it’s actually sunny,
the belief is false because it doesn’t
match reality.
4. According to Russell, what do
minds create?
Minds create beliefs, but they don’t
determine whether the beliefs are true
or false. Truth or falsehood depends
on whether the belief matches facts in
the external world.
 The
Cohere
nce
The coherence theory says
a statement is true if it fits
well with other beliefs or
ideas that are already
considered true. A person’s
judgment is true when it
matches their culture’s or
Since people have different cultures
and traditions, what is true for one
group may not be true for another.
For example:
•Muslims believe that "pigs are
unclean animals," and this is true in
their culture.
•Christians may not share this
belief, so it’s not true for them.
This theory, developed by
philosophers like Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and
Baruch Spinoza, explains
that truth depends on how
well a belief fits into a larger
system of ideas in a logical
In simple terms: a belief
is true if it makes sense
within the beliefs of a
group or society.
 The
Pragmati
c Theory
The Pragmatic Theory says
something is true if it is
useful. According to this
theory, truth is connected to
action and what works in real
life. To know if something is
true, you need to see if it
For example:
•Some people believe in the power
of prayer because it helps them feel
better and find salvation.
•Sigmund Freud said people believe
in God because it gives them hope
and prevents despair.
In simple terms, a belief is true if
it is useful and helps people in
their lives.
Fallacies
In addition to the theories of truth,
another way to determine the
truth is by identifying errors in
reasoning, called fallacies. Humans
are rational beings, but their
reasoning needs to be checked to
make sure it’s correct.
Sometimes, people use arguments
that sound convincing but don’t
actually prove anything. These are
called fallacies. They can trick
people into believing something
false or making poor judgments.

Examples, page34-35
Ad Hominem Fallacy occurs when
someone attacks a person’s
character, traits, or other personal
aspects instead of addressing their
argument or point."
Example 1:
•Person A: "I think we should
implement stricter environmental
laws to reduce pollution."
•Person B: "Why should we listen to
you? You’re not even a scientist."
In this example, Person B
dismisses the argument by
attacking Person A's
qualifications instead of
addressing the argument about
environmental laws.
Appeal to Force
Using threats or force to make
someone accept a conclusion.
•Example:
"If you don’t agree that I deserve
the promotion, I’ll make your work
life miserable."
Appeal to Pity Using emotions of
sympathy or pity to persuade,
instead of logic.
•Example:
"You should give me an A on this
paper because I worked so hard on
it, and my parents will be upset if I
fail."
Appeal to Popular Opinion
(Argumentum ad Populum)
Arguing something is true or correct
because many people believe it.
•Example:
"Everyone uses this brand of
toothpaste, so it must be the best."
 Appeal to Tradition
Claiming something is right or better
because it’s been done that way for a
long time.
•Example:
"We’ve always celebrated this festival
this way, so there’s no need to change
anything now."
Begging the Question (Circular
Reasoning)
The conclusion is assumed in the
premises without proper proof.
•Example:
"Reading is essential because it’s
important to read."
Fallacy of Composition
Assuming what is true of a part is
also true of the whole.
•Example:
"Each player on the team is
talented, so the team as a whole
must be unbeatable."
Fallacy of Division
Assuming what is true of the whole
is also true of its parts.
•Example:
"This car is the best model on the
market, so every part of the car
must be top quality."
Fallacy of Equivocation
Using a word with multiple meanings in
different senses within the same
argument.
•Example:
"A feather is light. What is light cannot
be dark. Therefore, a feather cannot be
dark."
 The
Square
of
The Square of Opposition is a
tool used to understand the
relationships between four
types of statements (called
propositions).
The four types of
propositions are based
on quality (affirmative or
negative)
and quantity (universal or
particular). These are
commonly known as
It helps determine if a
statement is true or false
based on its connection to
other statements. This idea
was developed during
Aristotle's time.
Here are the four symbols and what they
mean:
•A: Universal Affirmative (e.g., "All cats
are animals.")
•E: Universal Negative (e.g., "No cats are
animals.")
•I: Particular Affirmative (e.g., "Some cats
are animals.")
•O: Particular Negative (e.g., "Some cats
are not animals.")
A proposition is a statement that says
something about a subject. It can affirm
or deny something and always has three
main parts:
1.Subject: What the statement is
about.
2.Predicate: What is being said
about the subject.
3.Copula: The linking word that
connects the subject and predicate
(usually forms of "to be," like is,
are).
Here are the types of propositions:
1.Singular Propositions: Talk about
one specific individual or group.
Example: "This dog is barking."
(Subject: this dog, Predicate:
barking, Copula: is)
2. Particular Propositions: Refer to
a part or an undefined portion of a
group.
Example: "Some dogs are friendly."
(Subject: some dogs, Predicate:
friendly, Copula: are)
3. Universal Propositions: Apply to
all members of a group.
Example: "All dogs are mammals."
(Subject: all dogs, Predicate:
mammals, Copula: are)
Example:
In the statement, "All men are
mortal":
•Subject:
•Predicate:
• Copula:
Propositions, based on the
subject-predicate relationship,
can be represented by specific
patterns depending on whether
they affirm or deny something
and how broadly they apply. Here
are the common patterns:
Universal Affirmative (A):
Pattern: All S are P
Example: "All cats are animals."
Universal Negative (E):
Pattern: No S are P
Example: "No cats are dogs."
Particular Affirmative (I):
Pattern: Some S are P
Example: "Some cats are playful."
Particular Negative (O):
Pattern: Some S are not P
Example: "Some cats are not
friendly."
In these patterns:
•S represents the subject.
•P represents the predicate.
•Words like all, no, some indicate
whether the proposition is universal or
particular.
•Words like are or are not affirm or
deny the relationship between the
subject and predicate.
1. Contradictories
Two statements
are contradictories when they
cannot both be true and cannot
both be false at the same time. If
one is true, the other must be
false.
•Example:
•A: "All dogs are mammals" (Universal
Affirmative).
•O: "Some dogs are not mammals"
(Particular Negative).
If A is true, O must be false, and vice
versa.
2. Contraries
Two statements
are contraries when they cannot
both be true at the same time, but
they can both be false.
•Example:
•A: "All dogs are mammals."
•E: "No dogs are mammals."
Both cannot be true at the same
time (it’s impossible for all and
none to be true), but they could
both be false (e.g., some dogs are
mammals).
3. Subcontraries
Two statements
are subcontraries when they cannot
both be false at the same time, but
they can both be true.
•I: "Some dogs are friendly."
•O: "Some dogs are not friendly."
Both could be true (some dogs are
friendly, and some are not), but
they cannot both be false (there
must be at least some dogs in one
of these groups).
4. Subalterns
Subalterns are pairs of statements
where the truth of a universal
statement (A or E) guarantees the
truth of its particular counterpart (I
or O), but not the other way around.
•Example:
•If A ("All dogs are mammals") is true, I
("Some dogs are mammals") must also
be true.
•However, if I is true, A may not
necessarily be true.
Subalterns flow downwards from
universal to particular, but not upwards.
Thank
You!