© Alex Lloyd

2023

Reproduction in
plants
IGCSE Biology Grade 10
2024
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What will we learn?

This chapter covers:

■ asexual and sexual reproduction
■ the nuclei of gametes and zygotes
■ the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction
■ the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
■ the structure and function of the parts of a flower
■ the differences between insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
■ how pollination and fertilisation take place
■ the conditions that seeds need for germination.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Objectives

► B10.01 Asexual and sexual reproduction

► B10.02 Flowers
► B10.03 Comparing sexual and asexual reproduction
© Alex Lloyd
2023

B10.01 Asexual and

sexual reproduction
© Alex Lloyd
2023

B10.03 Comparing
sexual and asexual
reproduction
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Not your normal kind of banana…

► The most popular types of bananas people eat

today are seedless.
► Seedless bananas were made by crossing two
wild species of banana.
► These wild species of bananas have large, hard
seeds and less fleshy pulp.
► Plants without seeds reproduce differently
than plants with seeds.
► There are advantages and disadvantages to
these two ways of reproducing.
Musa Acuminata Musa
Baalbisiana
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What is the most common kind of banana?

► About half of all bananas cultivated globally

are Cavendish bananas.
► Cavendish bananas are seedless and reproduce
asexually.
► All Cavendish bananas are genetically identical
to one another.
► A disease that can make one Cavendish banana
plant sick can make all banana plants sick.
► Panama disease is a fungal infection that
affects Cavendish bananas.
On an Australian banana plantation, banana plants
are protected from Panama disease by plastic bags.
© Alex Lloyd
2023
► Reproduction is the passing of one or two organism’s genes to new organisms.
Asexual and sexual reproduction ► Most organisms can just use one way but not the other while many plants can use both.
Asexual and sexual reproduction are functional adaptations of an organism to the way it
passes on its genetic material most effectively.

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

In asexual reproduction there are no gametes formed - the offspring is

essentially a clone. In sexual reproduction haploid gametes are formed, which
during sexual intercourse and fertilisation form again a diploid zygote.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What are the different ways organisms can

reproduce?
► In asexual reproduction, one parent’s
cells start dividing by mitosis to produce
a new organism.
► Mitosis produces cells that all have the
exact same number and type of
chromosomes as their parent.
► The parent and its offspring are all
genetically identical.

Potatoes reproduce asexually by having tubers planted in the

ground.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Are there any animals that reproduce asexually?

► Asexual reproduction is used by plants,

bacteria, and some animals.
► The hydra is a genus of small, fresh-water
animals that reproduces asexually.
► A small bud starts growing from the parent
organism and eventually detaches as a separate
individual.
► The parent and offspring hydra are genetically
identical.
► Hydra form a relationship with algae, which
colors them green and provides food via
photosynthesis.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What are the pros and cons of asexual

reproduction?
► In asexual reproduction, cells divide by mitosis and there
is very little genetic variation.
► Farmers can grow a large amount of crops very quickly
if that plant is asexually reproducing.
► If an organism is isolated and cannot be pollinated or
find a mate, it can still reproduce.
► Parent organisms might compete with their offspring if
there is not enough space.
► Asexually reproducing organisms might not adapt
quickly if:
► If the environment changes
► The organism faces new selective pressure
Starfish (Asterias rubens) can reproduce
by
regenerating their body parts.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What are the pros and cons of sexual

reproduction?

► In sexual reproduction, cells divide by meiosis

and there is great genetic variation.
► Flowering plants reproduce sexually and disperse
their seeds to avoid competition.
► Sexual reproduction is beneficial for changing
environments or new selective pressure.
► The greater genetic variation of sexual
reproduction allows species to adapt more easily.
► A sexually reproducing species is less vulnerable
to a new disease.
The brown heath butterfly (Coenonympha
pamphilus) reproduces sexually.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What is the cellular process of sexual

reproduction?

► The parent(s) involved in sexual reproduction produce

special sex cells called gametes.
► The sex cells of mammals are sperm cells and egg cells.
► Fertilization is when one nucleus from a sperm cell
and one nucleus from an egg cell fuse together.
► The new cell formed by fertilization is a zygote.
► The zygote goes through many rounds of cell division to
eventually form a new organism.
► Gametes join to form new organisms that are
genetically unique.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What’s so special about gametes?

► Gametes are different from normal body cells

because of how many chromosomes they have.
► Normal body cells have a full set of
chromosomes, which makes them diploid.
► Gametes have only half a set of chromosomes,
which makes them haploid.
► When two haploid gametes fuse, they form a
diploid zygote.
► A zygote has as full set of chromosomes.
► Different organisms have different numbers of
chromosomes. Humans have 46 total.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Asexual and sexual reproduction

© Alex Lloyd

Role of meiosis and fusion of gamete

2023

http://www.mun.ca/biology/desmid/brian/BIOL2060/BIOL2060-20/2009.jpg
© Alex Lloyd

Asexual and sexual reproduction

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Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Number of Single individual is the sole parent Two parents give rise to offspring

parents
Number of All genes are passed on to offspring Each person passes on half its genes to
its offspring
genes passed
on to offspring
Offspring is genetically identical, a Offspring has a unique combination of
Appearance clone - genetically identical to parent, genes inherited from both parents, Greater
and variation only minor differences due to mutation genetic variation, offspring vary genetically
from siblings and parents
of offspring
Examples Hydra, sponges, yeast, bacteria Mammals, fish, reptiles,…

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

• No need to locate a • No genetic • Genetic recombination • Needs a mating
mating partner recombination  adaptive to changing partner
• Large number of • Offspring usually conditions. • Sexual products
offspring created locally dispersed • Offspring widely usually small
• If conditions optimal, dispersed (e.g. oceans) • Often occurs
all individuals are seasonally
perfectly well • More time needs to
adapted. be invested in
• May occur parental care
throughout the year
without being
© Alex Lloyd
2023
© Alex Lloyd
2023
© Alex Lloyd
2023

B10.02 Flowers
© Alex Lloyd
2023

How do plants reproduce sexually?

► Most plants can reproduce either sexually

or asexually.
► The most successful plants are flowering
plants that reproduce sexually.
► Most flowers have both male and female
reproductive structures, but some do not.
► The green leafy structures outside the
flower are sepals that provide protection
before the flower blossoms.
► The petals are usually colorful to attract
and guide insects inside the flower.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

How do plants reproduce sexually?

► The male reproductive structures in a flowering

plant make up the stamen.
► The anther of the stamen is where pollen grains
are produced and stored.
► Pollen grains contain the male gametes of the
flowering plant.
► The filament of the stamen holds up the anther.
► An insect would have to brush up against the
anthers on its way to the nectary.
► The nectary (not pictured) produces a sweet
solution of sugars that insects use as a food
source.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

How do plants reproduce sexually?

► The female reproductive structures in a

flowering plant make up the carpel.
► The stigma is the very top part of the carpel
where many grains of pollen will stick.
► The style is the mid-section of the carpel
leading to the egg nuclei.
► The ovary houses the ovules. The ovules contain
female gametes.
► All flowering plants produce fruit of some kind
after fertilization. It is not always edible.
© Alex Lloyd

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants Stamen are

2023

the male
Carpels are parts of the
the female flower,
parts of a Inside of
composed the
flower. anther anther
and 4
They have haploid
filament.
an ovary pollen
and a grains
stigma. The from one
two are diploid
connected cell are
by the In each of
produced.
style. these the
The ovary nucleus
contains one inside
or more divides
ovules. One again by
diploid ovule mitosis into
divides by The filament
a tube
meiosis to holds the
nucleus
© Alex Lloyd
2023
 Features of an insect-pollinated flower
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Draw and label a diagram of a flowering plant:

© Alex Lloyd
2023

Insect-Pollinated Flower

Outline the function

of the structures
found in an insect-
pollinated flower.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Insect-Pollinated Flower
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What do pollen grains look like?

► To the naked eye, pollen often appears as a

yellow powdery substance.
► Pollen grains have a hard, tough outer coating
that protects the male gametes inside.
► Under the microscope, we can see that pollen
grains from different plants have very different
shapes.
► The shape of a pollen grain is determined by
how the plant is pollinated.
► There are two different strategies plants use to get
pollinated.
Why are some pollen grains spiky and why are
some
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What are the two different forms of pollination?

► Pollination is simply the transfer of pollen from a stamen to

a carpel.
► About 80% of all flowering plants are pollinated by
animals, including insects, birds, bats, and even possums.
► Wind-pollinated plants make up most of the remaining 20%.
► There is a small minority of flowering plants that depend on
water for pollination.
► Insect-pollinated plants make pollen that is spiky so that it
easily sticks to the insect.
► Wind-pollinated plants make pollen that is smooth so that it
is easily carried by the wind.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What’s special about wind pollinated flowers?

► The adaptations of these flowers are very

specialized for the wind carrying pollen away.
► How do the adaptations listed below make sense for
wind-pollinated flowers?
► Wind pollinated flowers usually have no petals, no
nectar, and no fragrance.
► Anthers and stigmas of wind-pollinated flowers
dangle outside of the plant.
► Anthers of wind-pollinated plants make a very
large amount of pollen.
► The pollen grains of wind-pollinated plants are Bromus inermis, a wind-pollinated flowering
very smooth. plant.
Kristian Peters -- Fabelfroh 08:28, 29 October 2006 (UTC), CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia
© Alex Lloyd
2023

What’s special about insect-pollinated

flowers?
► The adaptations of these flowers are very
specialized for insects carrying pollen away.
► How do the adaptations listed below make sense
for insect-pollinated flowers?
► Insect-pollinated flowers have bright colored
petals, nectaries, and a fragrance.
► Anthers and stigmas of insect-pollinated flowers
are tucked inside the petals.
► Anthers of insect-pollinated flowers produce
less pollen than wind-pollinated flowers.
► The pollen grains of insect-pollinated flowers
are spikey.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

How do insect and wind-pollinated flowers

compare?
Insect-pollinated flowers Wind-pollinated flowers
Petals Large, obvious Petals are very small or
Fragrance petals
Strong absent
No fragrance
Nectaries fragrance
Nectaries often at the base of the No nectaries
petals
Anthers Anthers in the center of the flower, where Anthers hang outside the flower so
insects must touch them to get to the that pollen can be blown away
nectar
Stigmas Stigmas inside flower, where insects Large, feathery stigmas hang
must touch them to get to the outside the flower to catch pollen
nectar more easily
Shape of Sticky or spikey pollen that is easily Smooth pollen that is easily carried away
pollen carried away by insects by wind
Quantity of Quantities of pollen made to Very large quantities of pollen made to
pollen compensate for insects eating it or compensate for random movement of
delivering it to a different species of wind causing waste of pollen
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Which flowers pollinate which?

► Flowers can pollinate themselves or pollinate other flowers.

► When a flower pollinates itself or another flower on the
same plant, it’s self-pollination.
► When a flower pollinates another flower on a different plant
of the same species, it’s cross-pollination.
► Pollen grains that land on the stigma of a different species
of plant usually die.
► Most species of plants have both male and female
reproductive structures.
► A minority of plants have fully separate sexes of plants.
© Alex Lloyd

Methods of promoting cross-pollination

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cross-pollination self-pollination

Cross-pollination is the Self-pollination is when

transfer of pollen from an pollen from the same plant is
anther in a flower on one transferred to the stigma of
plant to a stigma of that plant. Many plants are
another plant. This brings hermaphrodites – they
about genetic variation, produce both pollen and
diversity and evolution. ovules with female gametes.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Some plant species have separate male and

female trees.

Male kiwi plant with numerous stamens Female kiwi plant with well-developed ovaries.
producing pollen. Anthers are present but to not produce viable pollen.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

How does self or cross-pollination affect a

plant population?
► These different forms of pollination can affect
plant populations in unique ways.
► Self-pollination results in lower genetic
variation because one plant supplies both
pollen and egg nuclei.
► Cross-pollination results in greater genetic
diversity because different plants supply
pollen and egg nuclei.
► Greater genetic variation causes increased
ability to adapt to changes in the
environment.
► Self-pollinating plants are less reliant on Ginkgo trees (Ginko biloba) also have plants
pollinating animals for reproduction. that only make pollen or only have egg nuclei.
© Alex Lloyd
2023

How does fertilization happen in plants?

► After pollination, a pollen grain has landed on

the stigma of a carpel.
► If the species are the same, the pollen grain will
start growing a pollen tube.
► Digestive enzymes degrade the tissue of the
style to forge a path to the ovary.
► The pollen grain moves through the pollen
tube to the ovule in the ovary.
► There’s a little opening in the ovule called the
micropyle where the pollen tube goes.
► When the pollen nucleus reaches the ovule, it
fuses with the egg nucleus.
© Alex Lloyd
2023
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Where do seeds come from?

► After fertilization, the parts of the flower have all

fulfilled their purpose.
► No longer being necessary, the sepals, petals, carpel,
and stamens wither away.
► Each ovule of the flower starts to grow and contains a
plant zygote.
► The zygote divides by mitosis to grow into an embryo
plant.
► The ovule now becomes a seed, with the embryo of a
new plant contained within.
► The seed is dormant, in a state of metabolic inactivity
that helps it survive harsh conditions. A female pumpkin flower after being
fertilized.
The flower of the plant will eventually fall
© Alex Lloyd
2023
© Alex Lloyd
2023

Which conditions are necessary for

germination?

► When a seed sprouts from its period of dormancy, we

call it germination.
► The basic conditions required for germination are
water, oxygen, and the right temperature.
► Some seeds require no light to germinate, while
others require extensive light exposure.
► How does the embryo plant use oxygen?
► Aerobic respiration
► Why is the right temperature needed?
► Enzymes have an optimum temperature.