Pollution - water

Ecosystem - (bioindicators), air (bu Distribution

Habitat - rning fossil fuels, cow
methane gas)

B6. 1 - Monitoring the

Environment
Kick nets
Abiotic -
Biotic factors -
Tree beating
Sweep nets Capture, mark,
Sampling quadrats
release, recapture -
-random
woodlice
-transect

Conservation – Pitfall traps

reasons, insitu Pooters
Threats to diversity
Starter
1. Define the terms ecosystem and habitat.

2. Which organisms can be sampled using quadrats?

3. What are the seven levels of classification, from the largest

grouping to the smallest?

4. Suggest three threats that could lead to a species becoming

extinct.
Starter - Answers
• An ecosystem is all of the organisms, habitats and interactions
between them in a given area; a habitat is the area in which a given
organism lives.
• Plants
• Kingdom – Phylum – Class – Order – Family – Genus – Species
• Any three from: habitat loss, overexploitation, disease, climate
change, invasive species.
C/W 27/01/2025
B6.1a Sampling
Learning objectives:
Keywords
Explain the factors which affect
• Distribution the distribution of animals
• Relationship
• Sampling
Investigating distribution of organisms
Match the definitions to the following words

• Distribution • Counting a small number of a large

population in order to study its
distribution

• Relationship • How two or more organisms of different

species interact with each other

• Where species are found over the total

• Sampling area where they occur
Sampling Counting a small number of a large population in
order to study its distribution

Relationship How two or more organisms of different species

interact with each other

Distribution Where species are found over the total area where
they occur
Organisms need resources!
• Physical factors may affect the distribution of organisms (abiotic
factors)
• Living factors (biotic factors) can also have an affect.

2 minutes to produce a list on the biotic and abiotic factors which could
affect distribution of plants/animals.
Examples
Abiotic Biotic
• Temperature • Predation
• Light intensity • Availability of food
• Moisture • Disease
• Soil pH • Availability of pollinators
• Availability of breeding partners
Sampling animals
• Mark-release-recapture
• Pooters
• Sweep nets
• Pitfall traps
• Kick sample
• Tree beating
 Mark-release -recapture

• Catch a large sample

• Count how many have been caught
• Mark with a spot on the back
• Release
• A couple of days later, catch another sample under the
same control variables
• Count how many you have caught, and how many are
marked
Mark- release- recapture
Total population =
Total caught 1st time x total caught 2nd time
Number of marked ones caught 2nd time

• An ecologist caught 65 woodlice, marked them and let

them go. He later caught 70 woodlice in the same
area. 24 of these were marked. What is an estimate
of the total population?
• How reliable do you think the estimate is?
Capture-mark-recapture
Assumptions
• There has been no birth, death, immigration or emigration.
• Identical sampling methods have been used.
• The marking is not affecting the organisms survival.
 Net
•Used to catch animals e.g. butterflies or fish
•Allows you to count and record numbers

Pooter
•A container with a straw-like device
used to suck up small animals
•Allows you to identify and count
small organisms such as insects

Pitfall Traps
•Containers buried in the
ground
 • “kick” a riverbank or bed
to disturb mud and
vegetation. Hold a net
down stream to capture
any organisms released
into the flowing water
Tree beating
• Stretch a large white
cloth under the tree or
bush. Then shake or
beat the tree to dislodge
invertebrates, which will
fall onto the cloth.
Extension - Identifying unknown
organisms
• Branched or spider key
• Numbered or Dichotomous key
Spider key
Starter
1. How would you define biotic factors? Give two examples.
2. How would you define abiotic factors? Give two examples.
3. What approach might you use to investigate the change in distribution in
a plant as you move away from a landmark, such as a water source or
larger tree?
4. A first sample of ground beetles in a field captures 176 individuals, all of
which are marked. A second sample in the same field captures 184
beetles, of which 27 are marked. What is the estimated population size of
ground beetles in this field?
5. What three assumptions need to be made in a capture-mark-recapture
investigation?
C/W 27/01/2025
B6.1a Sampling Plant Population
Learning objectives:
Keywords
Know the method used to
Quadrats estimate plant populations in a
given area
Use your key to identify these species
How many daisies in the field?
You have 15 seconds…
How many did you count?
• How did you estimate the number of daisies?
• Did you try to count them all?
• Or did you use another method?

• We need a quantitative estimate for the number of daisies – it doesn’t

have to be perfect but it should be as close as possible to the real
number.

• Write your first estimate down, then try again, seeing if this will help…
 --------------------------3 m----------------------------
--------------------------5 m------------------------------------------------
How many daisies were there?
• There were 103 daisies in the field. How close were
you?

• Your should have involved the following steps:

• Select at least three quadrats randomly and count how
many daisies are in each
• Add them to get a total and divide by the number of samples
to find the mean number of daisies per quadrat.
• Multiply the mean by the number of quadrats that would fit
into the field to get your estimated total number of daisies.
Estimating plant populations/%
Cover
• Select at least three quadrats randomly (random number generator)and
count how many of each species are in each quadrat
• Add them to get a total and divide by the number of samples to find the
mean number of each species per quadrat.
• Multiply the mean by the number of quadrats that would fit into the field to
get your estimated total.
• If you don’t know the exact size of your field you can estimate the percentage
cover by seeing what percentage of each quadrat contains the organism and
calculating the mean.
Transects

Transects are tape measures put across the habitat.

You can then use quadrats at different points on the
transects.
It allows you to looks at how the habitat is changing
e.g. along a beach.
Finding a trend

• How do you think the

abundance of bluebells
changes depending on
how deep into this
woodland you go?

 By placing one quadrat each metre along a straight line you can
find the % cover or number of organisms for different distances.
This is called ‘sampling along a transect’.
 This can be used to show a trend – what would you do with the
results on the following slide?
Sampling along a transect method
• Use a tape measure to lay out the transect
• Place quadrats at regular intervals along the transect.
• Record the distance and number of each species or % cover
• Plot a kite diagram of your data
Kite diagrams not on specification only
do for extension work if you have time
Kite diagrams are a visual picture of the population
density of a species across a horizontal landscape.
How to draw a kite diagram
1. Calculate population density per metre2 for the
chosen organisms. 0.25 m2 quadrats were used.

Distance Barnacle Density Mussel Density Chiton Density

(m) (number/m2) (number/m2) (number/m2)

2 0 0 0
4 0 16 1
6 4 17 2
8 6 8 6
10 20 4 7
12 25 0 2
14 18 0 0
How to draw a kite diagram
1. Calculate population density per metre2 for the
chosen organisms. 0.25 m2 quadrats were used.

Quadrat Barnacle Density Mussel Density Chiton Density

Number (number/m2) (number/m 2
(number/m2)
)
2m 0 0 0 0 0 0
4m 0 0 16 64 1 4
6m 4 16 17 68 2 8
8m 6 24 8 32 6 24
10m 20 80 4 16 7 28
12m 25 100 0 0 2 8
14m 18 72 0 0 0 0
Instructions for constructing a kite
diagram…
1. You will need to use a whole page of graph paper
and turn it horizontally
2. x-axis (horizontal) = sample sites distances from
high tide
y-axis (vertical) = species names
3. Divide the y-axis into three equal parts. Draw a line
through the middle of each, parallel to the
horizontal axis. These will be the baselines (equal to
0)
Continued…
4. Scan your data to find the highest density value.
Divide this in half.
5. Make a scale on your y-axis above and below each
baseline that will cover this value.
6. Divide the rest of the data in half and plot points
above and below the baseline with an x. Mark O’s
on the baseline with an x. Join the points above and
below each baseline with a ruler and the same
underneath. Shade each ‘kite’.
7. Write a suitable title and include date and site at
the top of your page.
A bad kite diagram – what is wrong?
Title does not contain
much detail. No mention Some of the
of where site is or date kites are open
samples are taken. ended – should
be closed off at
end.

Does not give distances from

start point or units of distance
What is conservation?
Conservation is the study and protection
of biodiversity and natural resources.

It is not just about preserving habitats and

species as they are, although this does
play a part in conservation.

Instead, it is more about actively and carefully maintaining a balance between

ecological needs and human requirements, which are often in direct conflict
with each other.
 Threats to biodiversity
The biggest threats to biodiversity are all due to
the effects of a rapidly increasing human
population. They include:

 habitat destruction – e.g. deforestation for

urban development and agricultural land,
global warming, mining and pollution

 overexploitation – e.g. whaling, fishing and wildlife trade

 competition from introduced species – e.g. grey vs. red squirrels in the UK, the
Nile perch vs. cichlid fish in Lake Victoria, Uganda.
Conservation for ethical reasons
Some people think that all species have a right to exist and there is an
ethical reason to ensure they survive.

The argument is that humans – as the

dominant species on Earth and a major
cause of the current reduction in
biodiversity – should be responsible for
the protection of the natural environment.

There is also an argument that

biodiversity should be preserved for the
benefit and enjoyment of future
generations.
Conservation for economic reasons
Zoos, safari parks and other conservation sites
attract tourists and can have a major positive
impact on local and national economies.

A study carried out at the University of Alberta

found that the financial cost of maintaining the
biodiversity of the Mariba Forest Reserve in
southern Uganda was significantly lower than
the potential tourist income.

The researchers also modelled a direct correlation between the number of

bird species and the monetary value of the tourism in the area.
Many species provide humans with useful products and
therefore have a practical, as well an economic, value.
Many more could potentially be of use to future generations.

Examples of useful products include:

 food from plants and animals – only a relatively small number of species are
domesticated, meaning an outbreak of pests/diseases, or the effects of
climate change and pollution may have severe consequences on food
production.
 industrial materials, such as timber, wood, gums, fibres, paper, rubber and
fuel.
 over 100 medicines, including anti-inflammatories, painkillers, cancer drugs,
anticoagulants and anaesthetics.
Conservation for
aesthetic reasons
Many people take pleasure in walking in, or
simply looking at, rich, diverse ecosystems.
Such areas may also attract tourists and
have economic benefits.

In contrast, areas with low biodiversity can

look dull and boring, with little to offer
visually.
Conservation for ecological reasons
The complexity of relationships within
ecosystems means that no species exists
in complete isolation. This is called
interdependence.

Habitat loss can therefore have a dramatic,

widespread and unpredictable destabilizing
ecological effect.

Conserving for ecological reasons may therefore be the most important long-term
consideration.
What does conservation involve?
Conservation uses a range of approaches to protect
ecosystems and species. These include:

 restricting industrial and urban development to reduce habitat loss

 breeding endangered species in captivity
 introducing laws to protect wildlife and the environment by making certain
activities illegal
 establishing national parks, nature reserves and other conservation areas
 studying habitats and species to have a better understanding of them and how
they can be managed
 educating people about the need for conservation.
In situ conservation
It is generally preferable to protect and manage
species’ habitats so those at risk can recover in
their natural environment.

This is in situ (‘on site’) conservation and

requires the co-ordination of different
organizations, individuals and specialities.

Managing habitats may include enhancing the available shelter and sources of
food, or by introducing measures to reduce predation. Care must be taken not to
threaten one species while protecting another.
For each of the approaches to conservation in your booklets, suggest what the benefits of that
approach may be and what challenges may be faced. There may be some overlap!
What are the benefits? What might the challenges be?

Nature reserves

Captive breeding

Seed banks

International
agreements

Ecotourism
 Starter
• What four reasons might be given as to why a habitat should be conserved?

• Suggest two threats which might result in a habitat requiring conservation.

• What might be a disadvantage of relying on international agreements to conserve a

given species?

• Give two examples of abiotic factors that might impact an aquatic habitat.

• Suggest an assumption that must be made when conducting a capture-mark-

recapture investigation.
 Starter
• What four reasons might be given as to why a habitat should be conserved? Aesthetic,
ecological, economical and ethical

• Suggest two threats which might result in a habitat requiring

conservation. Deforestation, competition from invasive species, explotation.

• What might be a disadvantage of relying on international agreements to conserve a given

species? Not all countries enforce agreement.

• Give two examples of abiotic factors that might impact an aquatic habitat. PH, temperature

• Suggest an assumption that must be made when conducting a capture-mark-recapture

investigation. No births or deaths in the population.
 Bioindicators

• Identify sources of pollution.

• Describe an example of a living organism that can be used as an indicator of

pollution.

• Analyse data on how organisms can be affected by pollution.

What is pollution?
Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials into the environment.
What is a bioindicator species?

• A bioindicator is any species or group of species whose function,

population, or status can reveal the qualitative status of the
environment.
Air Pollution
Concentrations of different gases and particulates in the air affect
various species in different ways.
Some species are more vulnerable to gases like sulphur dioxides
than others.
Lichens are part fungus, part algae; there is a mutualistic
relationship where the algae photosynthesise, providing the fungi
with sugars, while the fungi supplies the algae with water.
There are many species, split into three main groups – crustose,
leafy, or bushy.

Crustose lichen Leafy lichen Bushy lichen

 Water Pollution
• Pollution lowers the levels of oxygen dissolved in the water.
• Different invertebrate species survive at different levels of dissolved oxygen.
• The relative abundance of each species indicates how polluted the water is.
• Four examples of indicator species are:

Mayfly larva Freshwater shrimp Water louse Rat tailed maggot

Lives in very high levels Lives in high levels of Lives in medium levels of Lives in low levels of
of oxygen oxygen oxygen oxygen.
Using this information, suggest what might be the advantages and disadvantages of using bioindicator
species as a measure of environmental health.
Advantages of Bioindicators Disadvantages of Bioindicators
Using this information, suggest what might be the advantages and disadvantages of using bioindicator
species as a measure of environmental health.
Advantages of Bioindicators Disadvantages of Bioindicators
Analyse the data below and then describe and
explain the trends that you have seen. Use data to
support your answer.

•Lichen is affected by levels of sulphur

dioxide caused by pollution.
•The more sulphur dioxide, the fewer
species of lichen that will grow.

•Oxygen levels in water are affected by

levels of pollution.
•This affects the different invertebrates
that are found in the water.
Exam Question
Q2. Some students investigated the distribution of some of the
plants growing in and around a
shallow stream. They sampled along a transect line.
The diagram shows their results.

(a) (i) Name the one species that grew

only in the driest conditions.
(ii) Only one species grew in the marsh,
the swamp and in the aquatic zones.
Which species?
(iii) Duckweed grows floating in water.
What evidence is there for this in the
students’ results?
Exam Question
Describe how you would use a -metre × -metre quadrat frame and a 30-metre tape
measure to obtain data similar to the data shown in the diagram.
You should include details of how you would make sure that you would obtain valid results. (6)