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Biology Lesson Note For

Grade 10
Units 3
 3.1 Inorganic molecule: water
Objectives:
• At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 identify inorganic and organic
biochemical molecules,
 discuss different inorganic ions and
their contribution to the cell,
explain the properties of water and
its importance for life
 Our body is made up of two types of biochemical
molecules.
These are organic and inorganic molecules.
 Biochemical molecules that do not contain both
carbon and
hydrogen are known as inorganic biochemical
molecules.
 Many inorganic compounds, such as water (H2O)
and the hydrochloric acid (HCl) generated by our
stomach, include hydrogen atoms.
 Only a few inorganic compounds, on the other
hand, contain
carbon atoms. One of such examples is carbon
dioxide (CO2).
 Organic biological molecules are made up of both carbon
and
hydrogen atoms. Covalent bonds are used to make organic
biochemical compounds in living creatures, including the
human body.
 Carbon and hydrogen, respectively, are the second and third
most abundant elements in your body.
 Inorganic molecules, as previously stated, do not contain
carbon and
were not created through biological means except oxides of
carbon
and carbonate ions. Certain inorganic molecules play critical
roles in
the survival of living organisms. Water is an example of an
inorganic
molecule.
 3.1.1.1 The properties of water

 Water is an inorganic molecule composed of two

elements.
These are hydrogen and oxygen. H2O is its
chemical formula.
 Each water molecule is composed of two
hydrogen atoms linked to a single oxygen atom.
 Life would not exist on our planet if it did not
have access to water.
 It is a key component of cells, accounting for 70
to 95 percent of the cells mass.
 Water, although being a simple molecule, has some
surprising
qualities. In a water molecule, each hydrogen atom
shares an electron
pair with the oxygen atom. In the O-H bonds in water,
oxygen is
more electronegative than hydrogen. Thus, the sharing
of electrons between H and O is unequal; the electrons are
more often in the
vicinity of the oxygen atom than hydrogen. This unequal
electron
sharing creates two electric dipoles in the water molecule
with
oxygen-bearing a partial negative charge and hydrogen
bearing a
partial positive charge. This makes water a polar molecule.
 The polarity of water has important chemical
implications
conferring its typical properties. Another
important consequence
of the polarity of the water molecule is that water
molecules attract
one another.
 The partially positively charged hydrogen atom of
one water molecule can interact with the partially
negatively charged oxygen atoms of another
molecule of water. This interaction is called a
hydrogen bond.
 The hydrogen bond network of water molecules
confers several unique properties on water that are
important for sustaining life.
 Structure of water
molecule
 Some typical properties of water are:
A. Water as a solvent
 Water is an effective solvent for ions and polar
molecules (molecules with an unequal charge
distribution, such as sugars and glycerol) because the
water molecules are attracted to the ions and polar
molecules, causing them to congregate and separate.
 Once a chemical is in solution, it is free to move about
and react with other chemicals. However, non-polar
molecules such as lipids are insoluble in water and, if
surrounded by water, tend to be pushed together by
the water,
 since the water molecules are attracted to each other.
 Distribution of water molecules
around ions in a solution.
 B. high specific heat capacity

A substance’s heat capacity is

the amount of heat required to
raise
its temperature by a
particular amount.
The specific heat capacity of
water is the amount of heat
energy necessary to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of
water by one degree Celsius.
The hydrogen bonds that cause water
molecules to adhere together make it difficult
for the molecules to move freely; the ties
must be broken to allow free mobility.
This explains why more energy is required to
raise the temperature of water than would
be required if hydrogen bonds did not exist.
 In effect, hydrogen bonding permits water to
store more energy than would otherwise be
feasible for a given temperature increase.
Water’s high heat capacity has crucial
biological results. since it makes the water
more resistant to temperature changes.
 C. high latent heat of vaporization

 The latent heat of vaporization is a measure of the

thermal energy
required to vaporize a liquid, converting it from a
liquid to a gas.
 In the case of water, it entails the transformation of
liquid water
into water vapour.
 Water has a comparatively high latent heat of
vaporization. This is due to its high heat capacity.
Because water molecules tend to stick together via
hydrogen bonds, very significant quantities of energy are
required for vaporization to occur because hydrogen
bonds must be broken before molecules can escape as
gas.
 D . density and freezing properties
• Water is a unique molecule in that its solid form, ice,
is less dense
than its liquid form. Water density begins to fall
below 4°C. As a result, ice
floats on liquid water and insulates the water
beneath it. This minimizes
the likelihood of big amounts of water freezing
entirely and increases the
likelihood of life surviving under cold
temperatures.
• Changes in water density as a result of temperature
generate currents, which aid in the circulation of
nutrients in the oceans.
 E. high surface tension and cohesion

 Water molecules have very high cohesion; in

other words, they tend to stick to each other.
These cohesive forces are connected to water’s
adhesion property, or the attraction of water
molecules to other molecules. This attraction can
be stronger than water’s cohesive
 Water “climbs” up the tube placed in a glass of
water, causing the water to look higher on the
sides of the tube than in the middle. This is due
to the fact that water molecules are more
attracted to the charged glass walls of the
capillary than to each other and hence adhere to
it.
 Capillary action is the name given to this sort of
adhesion. Cohesive and
adhesive forces are crucial for the transport of
water from the roots
to the leaves in plants.

Cohesion and adhesion

(H2O)
• High cohesion also results in high surface tension at the surface of
the water. This allows certain small organisms, such as raft spiders,
to
exploit the surface of the water as a habitat, allowing them to settle
on or skate over its surface.

Surface tension allowing Raft spider to walk on the water

surface
 F. boiling and freezing points

• The ability of water molecules to

form hydrogen bonds is
responsible for many of water’s
unique properties. Despite its
low molecular weight, it has a
very high boiling point (100°C).
This is due to the fact that water
needs more energy to break its
hydrogen bonds before it can
begin to boil.
 boiling and freezing points of water

Compound Boiling Point Freezing Point

Ethanol 78.4 C -114.6°C
Acetic acid 117.9°C 16.6°C
Hydrogen Sulfide -62°C -84°C
Water 100°C 0°C
 Home work
I. Describe the following questions Accordingly.

1.what is the difference between organic

and inorganic molecules?
2.List at least three common properties of
water.
3.What is the difference between cohesive
and adhesive forces?
4.Define the term ‘’capillary tube”.
5.Explain the difference between specific
heat capacity and latent heat of
vaporization.
 3.1.2 Inorganic ions
Objectives

• At the end of this section, the student will

be able to:
 mention important inorganic ions that are
necessary for life,
 mention diets that contain inorganic ions,
 discuss the effect of deficiency of nutrient
elements in our body,
 explain the importance of each nutrient
element to the human body.
 Inorganic ions are charged entities because they
are atoms with unshared electrons in their outer
shell. They are either positively or negatively
charged. They are virtually usually coupled with an
oppositely charged ion.
 Inorganic ions are found in living bodies in two
forms: free and dissolved in the cytoplasm and
associated with complex organic substances.
 They participate in a variety of critical functions in
living beings. Although they are only found in trace
amounts in our bodies, their significance cannot
be overstated.
 Any variations in their concentrations inside the
human body can have catastrophic implications.
 classification of inorganic ions
• Based on their requirement in the daily diet of a
normal individual,
inorganic ions or minerals in the human body are
divided into two categories;
i. Macro-nutrients
 They are nutrients which are required in the daily
diet.
 Examples: Sodium, Phosphorus, Magnesium,
Potassium, Sulfur, Chloride
ii. Micro-nutrients/trace elements
• Micro-nutrients are inorganic ions which are required
in small amounts.
• Examples: Iron, Copper, Iodine, Manganese, etc.
 A. hydrogen ions
 They are the most important ions to maintain balance and
equilibrium in living systems.
 They are released in the cells during various metabolic
processes.
 They are found in the cytoplasm of cells as well as in the
intercellular fluid, blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and
other body fluids.
 The concentration of hydrogen ions is expressed as PH.
The pH scale
ranges from 1 to 14. The pH value has an inverse
relationship with
the concentration of hydrogen ions; that is, the higher
the pH, the lower
and the concentration of hydrogen ions.
 B. sodium ions
The sodium ion is the body’s 2nd
most important positively
charged ion.
 The concentration of sodium
ions in extracellular fluids is
higher than in cell cytoplasm. It
is a critical nutrient that must be
consumed in order for the
human body to function
normally .The average person’s
 C. potassium ions
These are also positively
charged ions abundantly
present in our bodies.
Contrary to sodium ions,
potassium ions are the major
intracellular ions,
being in higher
concentration within the
cytoplasm of the cells.
 Potassium ions must be taken
• Most of the body’s potassium is located
inside the cells.
• Potassium is necessary for the normal
functioning of cells, nerves, and
muscles.
• The body can use the large reservoir of
potassium stored within cells to
help maintain a constant level of
potassium in blood.
• Its concentration in plasma is much raised
during hemolysis (destruction) of red
blood cells.
 D. Calcium ion
 Calcium is the most abundant inorganic ion present in our
body having great importance. It is a positively charged
ion mainly present in the cytoplasm of cells. Bones and
teeth are the major organs having a lot of calcium.
 The calcium requirements of a healthy human are around
800 mg/day.
 Milk and milk products are the ideal sources of calcium in
our diet..
 It makes around 1 to 1.5 kg of our body weight. Although
99% of calcium is present in bones and teeth, around 1%
of calcium is in the cytoplasm of other cells and
extracellular fluid performs several important functions in
our body. Calcium concentration in the plasma is around
9-11 mg/dl.
 F. Phosphate ions
 These are the negatively charged inorganic ions
abundantly present
in our bodies. The body of an average man
contains around 1 Kg of
phosphate ions.
 Most of the phosphate ions are presently combined
with calcium in bones and teeth. Its requirements
are equivalent to calcium. An adult male needs to
take 800 mg of phosphate ions daily in his diet.
 Milk, cereals, meat, and eggs are rich sources of
phosphate ions. The plasma concentration of
phosphate ions is around 3-4 mg/dl. It is more
abundantly present in the cells.
 .
f Chloride ions
 These are the negatively charged inorganic ions present in
extracellular fluids. Its concentration in the body is almost
similar to that of sodium ions, the major extracellular ions.
 Its average daily requirement is 5 to 10 grams. It is usually
taken along
with sodium in the form of NaCl present in cooked food.
 Chloride ions perform their role in combination with
sodium ions.
 They are involved in:
. maintaining the osmotic pressure, fluid ,and acid-
base balance,
.they are required to make Hydrochloric acid
present in stomach
• Hydrochloric acid(HCL) is
necessary to:
. digest proteins in the
stomach,
. kill bacteria and other
pathogens in food when it
enters stomach,
. Salivary amylase is an
enzyme to digest starch that is
activated
by chloride ions.
 G. Iron ions
• Iron ions are the positively charged ions present
in or body. Around
70% of iron ions in our body are present in
haemoglobin within the red
blood cells.
• Source of iron: legumes such as beans, red meat,
liver, spinach, pumpkin seeds, fish, etc. As a
component of haemoglobin and myoglobin, iron
is needed for the transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in our bodies.
• It is an essential component of cytochromes that
are a component of the electron transport chain.
• Iron is a component of the peroxidase enzyme, a
lysosomal enzyme
necessary for bacteria and other phagocytized particles
in the white
blood cells. Three clinical conditions associated with the
abnormal iron
metabolism in our body are:
i. Iron-deficiency Anemia: a common condition in
individuals with an
iron-deficient diet,
ii. Hemosiderosis: characterized by excess iron in
the body, and
iii. Hemochromatosis: a condition which abnormal
iron deposits are
formed in the liver, spleen, skin, and pancreas.
 h. Copper ions
• Copper ions are the positively charged inorganic ions that are
present in our bodies. Source of copper ions include: shellfish, seeds
and nuts, meats, wheat, whole-grain, chocolate, etc. They are:
. an essential component of several important proteins and
enzyme,.
. needed for the synthesis of haemoglobin, collagen, and
elastin,
. required for the normal development of the nervous
system
• Wilson disease is a rare clinical condition caused by abnormal
copper
metabolism in our body. It is characterized by abnormal copper
deposition in the liver and brain causing hepatic cirrhosis and brain
damage.
• The copper deposition in kidneys can cause renal failure.
 i. Iodine ions
 Iodine is a type of mineral found naturally in the
earth’s soil and ocean waters. Many salt water
and plant-based foods contain iodine, and this
mineral is most-widely available in iodized salt.
 Iodine plays a vital role in the thyroid health.
Thyroid gland, which is located at the base of the
front of the neck, helps regulate hormone
production. These hormones control metabolism,
heart health, etc.
 To make thyroid hormones, thyroid gland takes
up iodine in small amounts. Without iodine,
thyroid hormone production can decrease.
 A “low” or underactive thyroid gland can lead to a condition
called
hypothyroidism. We can get enough iodine from your
diet by eating
dairy products, fortified foods, and salty water fish or by
adding
iodized salt in your food.
 Amount of iodine ions required for the normal function is
150kg/day. Iodine is also available in plant foods that
grow in naturally
iodine-rich soil.
 Goiter is an enlarged thyroid gland. Our thyroid may
become
enlarged as a result from either hypothyroidism or
hyperthyroidism.
 Hyperthyroidism is an overactive thyroid gland.
 Home work
• I. Explain the following inorganic ions
in terms of:
1.Their sources, amount required,
Importance's ,type of deficiency disease and
excess intake results in.
a. Hydrogen ions
b. Sodium ions
c. Calcium ions
d. Chlorine ions
e. Copper ions
f. Iodine ions
 3.1.3. Organic molecules
Objectives
• At the end of this section, the student will be able
to:
 discuss the role of biological molecules in the cell
structure,
 Classify organic molecules based on their
constituent elements and the monomers from
which they are constructed,
 elaborate the functions of carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and Nucleic acids to the body,
 conduct experiments to identify nutrients in
different foodstuffs,
 .
3.1.3. Organic molecules

• An organic molecule is a compound that contains

carbon and is
found in living things. Carbon forms the basis of
organic life due to its
ability to form large and complex molecules via
covalent bonding.
• Four principal groups of organic compounds contribute to
much of the
structure and function of living things. These are :
A. carbohydrates,
B. lipids
C. proteins and
D. nucleic acids.
Organic molecules are made up
of small, single molecular
units(monomers). Monomers are
connected by strong covalent
bonds
Organic to create
Elements polymers.
Monomer
molecules forming
Polymers are long chains of
the molecule
Proteins C, H, O and N Amino acids
molecules
Lipids
formed of Glycerol
C, H, O
many and fatty
single units bonded one acid after the
Carbohydrates C, H, O Monosaccharides
other.
Nucleic acids C, H, O, N and P Nucleotides
 A. Carbohydrates
Objectives

• At the end of this section, the student will

be able to:
 name the different types of carbohydrates,
 discuss the importance of
monosaccharaides, and disaccharides,
 explain which food items are sources of
carbohydrates, and
 tell the types and importance of
polysaccharides
 Carbohydrates are macromolecules which are made of
carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. In carbohydrates, the ratio
of hydrogen to
oxygen is 2:1.
 Carbohydrates are an essential part of our diet; grains,
fruits, and
vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates.
 They provide energy tothe body, particularly through
glucose, a simple
sugar. They also have other important functions in
humans, animals,
and plants.
 Some carbohydrates rich food items are given in figure
3.5 below
• There are three main groups of carbohydrates. These are:

I. Monosaccharides
 monosaccharides are molecules that contain only one
sugar unit.
 sugars dissolve quickly in water, forming sweet-tasting
solutions.
 monosaccharides have the general formula (CH2O)n
(CNH2nOn) where ‘n’ refers to the number of carbon. in
monosaccharides, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to
oxygen is 1:2:1.
 monosaccharides are made up of a single sugar molecule
(the term “mono” refers to one). when categorizing
monosaccharides based on the number of carbon atoms
in each molecule, the following are the most common: 1)
trioses (3C), 2) pentoses (5C), and 3) hexoses (6C).
 C6H12O6 is the chemical formula for hexose
sugar. This is referred
to as the molecular formula. It is also useful
to show how the atoms
are arranged, which can be done with a
diagram known as the
structural formula.
 The structural formula of the most common
monosacchirdes; glucose, galactose and
fructose have identical chemical formula
(C6H12O6),but they differ structurally and
chemically (and are known as isomers) due to
different atom positions in the carbon chain.
structural formula of
I. glucose
II.Galactose
iii. Fructose
 Roles of monosaccharaides in living
organisms
Monosaccharides play very important roles in
living organisms.
 Major functions of monosaccharides include:
I. As a source of energy in respiration:
 It is due to a large number of carbon-
hydrogen bonds which can be broken to
release a lot of energy that can be
transferred to help make ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate) from ADP (Adenosine
diphosphate) and phosphate.
 II. As building blocks for larger molecules:
Monosaccharides are the simplest forms of
sugar and the most basic
units (monomers) from which all
carbohydrates are built.
 For example, glucose is used to make the
polysaccharides starch, glycogen, and
cellulose.
Ribose (a pentose sugar) is one of the
molecules used to make RNA
(ribonucleic acid) and ATP. Deoxyribose (also
a pentose sugar) is one of the molecules
used to make DNA.
 II. Disaccharides (C12H22O11)
• Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides.
 The three most common disaccharides are:
a. Maltose glucose + glucose,
b. Lactose glucose + galactose
c. Sucrose glucose + fructose
 Maltose or malt sugar is the product of breakdown of
starch catalyzed
by the enzyme amylase. Sucrose is the transport
sugar in plants and
 the sugar that is commonly purchased in stores.
Lactose is a sugar
found in milk and is thus an important dietary
component.
a. maltose
b. lactose
c. sucrose
 iii. Polysaccharides -(C6H10O5)-n

• Polysaccharides are made of polymers of monomer

glucose because
glucose is the primary source of energy for cells, living
organisms. If glucose
accumulated in cells, it would dissolve and cause the
cell’s contents to
become overly concentrated, compromising the cell’s
osmotic properties.
• Condensation reactions convert glucose to a storage
polysaccharide, which is a convenient, compact, inert (un-
reactive), and insoluble molecule, avoiding these issues.
• Glucose can be made available again quickly by an
enzyme-controlled reaction.
 The most important polysaccharides are starch,
glycogen, and cellulose
a. Starch [-(C6H10O5)-n]
 Starch is the plant’s stored form of sugar. Plants can
produce glucose,
and the surplus glucose is stored as starch in
various plant components
such as roots and seeds.
b. Glycogen [-(C6H10O5)-n]
 It is made up of monomers of glucose, is the storage
form of glucose in humans and other animals.
Glycogen is a highly branched polymer that is often
stored in liver and muscle cells and broken down to
release glucose if glucose levels fall.
 c. cellulose [-(C6H10O5)-n]
 Cellulose is a naturally occurring biopolymer that
supports the structure
of Plant cell walls. Wood and paper are examples of
cellulosic materials..
 Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is densely
packed as long
extended chains. This is what gives cellulose its rigidity
and high strength,
which are critical for plant cells.
 Dietary fiber is cellulose that passes through our digestive
system. While animal digestive enzymes cannot break
down the glucose-glucose linkages in cellulose, herbivores
such as cows, buffalos, and horses can digest cellulose-
rich grass and use it as a food source.
 Certain bacteria live in these animals’ rumens (part
of herbivores’ digestive systems) and secrete the
enzyme cellulase. Cellulases may degrade cellulose
into glucose monomers, which the animal can utilize
as an energy source.
 A cell wall often comprises numerous layers of fibers
that run in different directions to boost strength.
Without a wall, the cell would explode in a dilute
fluid and this pressure helps the plant grow by
hardening tissues and stimulating cell expansion.
 The shape of the cell as it grows is determined by
the arrangement of fibers around it. Despite their
strength, cellulose fibers are porous, allowing water
and solutes to pass between the cell surface
membrane and the surrounding environment.
 Major functions of carbohydrates
 They serve as the primary source of energy for most
organisms.
Examples:glucose in fruit juice, lactose in
milk, starch in wheat
are different forms of carbohydrate that we harvest
energy from.
 They act as a storage form of energy in the body
(e.g. Starch and Glycogen).
 Starch stores energy for plants. In animals, it is
catalyzed by the enzyme amylase (found in saliva) to
fulfill the energy requirement.
 Glycogen is a polysaccharide food reserve of animals,
bacteria,
and fungi.
 They serve as cell membrane components
that mediate some forms of intercellular
communication.
 They form the structural component of many
organisms, including
. the cell walls of bacteria and
fungi
. the exoskeleton of many
insects.
 Chitin is involved in the formation of a fungal
cell wall, whereas
cellulose is an important component of
ruminant diets.
 Test for reducing sugars
 NB: All monosaccharides, such as glucose, and some
disaccharides, such as maltose, are considered reducing
sugars. Sucrose is the only common non-reducing sugar.
Reducing sugars get their name from the fact that they
can carry out a reduction reaction. The Benedict’s test,
which uses Benedict’s reagent, makes use of this.
Benedict’s reagent is a blue-coloured copper (II)
sulphate solution in an alkaline solution. Sugars are used
to convert soluble blue copper sulphate, which contains
copper(II) ions, to insoluble brick red copper oxide,
which contains copper (I).
A brick-red precipitate of copper oxide can be seen.
 Reducing sugar + Cu2+ oxidized sugar + Cu+ blue
red-brow
 class work
• I. Explain the following questions accordingly.

1. what is the difference between organic

molecules and minerals?
2.List at list three importance of
carbohydrates.
3.Describe the common characteristic of
monosaccharaides and
disaccharides.
4.What are the structural and storage complex
carbohydrates?
5.Explain the difference among glucose,
galactose and fructose.
 B. Lipids
Objectives
• At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
discuss what lipids are,
 Mention the importance of lipids for
our cells,
 describe the structure of glycerol
and fatty acids, and
 explain the importance of
phospholipids in the cell membrane.
 Lipids are diverse groups of biomolecules that are
insoluble in water
but soluble in nonpolar solvents such as ether,
chloroform, and
acetone. Lipids are made of elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
 It includes fats and oils and cholesterols. Fats are solid at
room
temperature and oils are liquid at room temperature.
Chemically,
they are very similar. lipids are organic compounds
formed by fatty
acids combining with alcohol. The butter, cooking oil,
and the meat
we eat are good examples of lipids.
 Lipids are polymers of fatty acids and glycerol molecules.
 fatty acids [CH3(CH2)nCOOH ]
• Fatty acids are a series of acids, some of which are found in
fats (lipids).
• CH3(CH2)nCOOH is the general formula for fatty acids.
• They contain the acidic group –COOH, known as a carboxyl
group.
• The larger molecules in the series have long hydrocarbon tails
attached to
the acid ‘head’ of the molecule. As the name suggests, the
hydrocarbon
tails consist of a chain of carbon atoms combined with
hydrogen. The
chain is often 15 or 17 carbon atoms long.
• Based on the presence or absence of double bonds (–C=C–) in
their
structure, there are two types of fatty acids:
 i. unsaturated fatty acids
 It consist of one or more double bonds in their
structure so that they do not contain the
maximum possible amount of hydrogen. Double
bonds make fatty acids and lipids melt more
easily.
 For example, most oils are unsaturated. If there
is more than one double bond in their structure,
the fatty acids or lipids can be described as
polyunsaturated; if there is only one double
bond, they are called monounsaturated.
 Plant lipids are often unsaturated and occur as
oils, e.g. olive oil and sunflower oil.
 ii. saturated fatty acids
 They have no double bonds in their
carbon-carbon chain.
 All saturated fatty acids are solid at room
temperature.
Animal lipids are often saturated and occur
as animal fat.
 Fat is stored in several places in the human
body, particularly just below the dermis of
the skin and around the kidneys. Below the
skin, it also acts as an insulator against loss
of heat.
 phospholipids
• Phospholipids are a subset of lipids. Each molecule has the
unusual property
of having one water-soluble end. This is because one of the
three fatty acid
molecules is replaced by a phosphate group, which is polar and
thus dissolves
in water. The phosphate group is hydrophilic (water-loving) and
makes the
head of a phospholipid molecule hydrophilic, although the two
remaining tails
are still hydrophobic (water-hating). This allows the molecules to
form a
membrane around a cell, where the hydrophilic heads lie in the
watery
solutions on the outside of the membrane, and the hydrophobic
tails form a
layer that is impermeable to hydrophilic substances
Phospholipid molecules
• Phospholipid bilayer
 major of functions of lipids
i. Fatty acids serve as the foundation for
other types of lipids and serve
as stored energy.
ii. Serve as major fuel store and major
dietary lipid in plants (oil) and
animals (Fat).
 Fats are stored in specialized cells called
adipose cells serve as:
. poor conductors of heat
. provide insulation at low
temperatures
 iii. They serve as structural components in cell
membranes (e.g.,
phospholipids); precursors for the synthesis of
Vitamin D, Bile, acids,
hormones of adrenal cortex such as cortisol, and
aldosterone; female sex hormones such as
progesterone and estrogen and male sex hormones
such as testosterone (Cholesterol).
 Some serve as protective coatings on skin, fur and
feathers of animals, birds and fruit and leaves of
plants (Example, Wax). The shiny appearance of
fruits and leaves is due to waxes. Waxes also serve
as a water barrier for animals, birds and insects;
and also protects against cold.
 Home work
I. Describe the following questions accordingly.

1.what is the difference and

similarity between carbohydrates
and lipids?
2.List at least three roles of lipids in
living organisms.
3.Distingush the difference between
saturated and unsaturated fatty
acids
 C. proteins
Objectives
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
 mention the importance of proteins to
cells and the body of living things,
 elaborate formation of proteins by
amino acids,
 differentiate proteins according to their
structure,
 define what are amino acids, and group
proteins according to their function.
 Proteins are biological molecules composed of
carbon, hydrogen,
 oxygen, and nitrogen and sometimes contain
phosphorus and sulphur.
 Although amino acids may have other formulas,
those in protein invariably have the general formula
RCH(NH2)COOH, where C is carbon, H is hydrogen,
N is nitrogen, O is oxygen, and R is a group, varying
in composition and structure, called a side chain.
 Proteins are biological molecules made up of amino
acids monomers.
 They are one of the most abundant organic
molecules in living systems and have the widest
range of functions of any macromolecule.
 Proteins can be structural, regulatory, contractile, or
protective. They could be toxins or enzymes, or
they could be used in transportation, storage, or
membranes. Each cell in a living system may
contain thousands of proteins, each with a distinct
function. Their structures,
like their functions, vary greatly.
 They are all, however, amino acid polymers
arranged in a linear sequence (also referred to as a
“peptide”).
 They are an extremely important class of
macromolecule in living organisms.
 More than 50% of the dry mass of most cells is
protein. Protein rich food items include; meat,
cheese, milk, fish, beans, vegetables, etc.
 Amino acids
• Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins.
• Amino acids have:
• a central carbon atom which is bonded to an
amine group, –NH2,
• a carboxylic acid group, –COOH and
• a hydrogen atom
• The only way in which amino acids differ from each
other is in the
remaining, fourth, group of atoms bonded to the
central carbon. This is
called the R group. Different amino acids occur in the
proteins of living
organisms, all with a different R group.
general formula of amino acids
examples of amino acids
 The peptide bond
• Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by
a covalent
bond. One loses a hydroxyl (–OH) group from its
carboxylic acid group,
while the other loses a hydrogen atom from its
amine group. This leaves
a carbon atom of the first amino acid-free to
bond with the nitrogen
atom of the second. The link is called a peptide
bond.
• The oxygen and two hydrogen atoms removed from
the amino acids
form a water molecule.
 The new molecule which has been formed is made up of two
linked
amino acids, and is called a dipeptide. Any number of
extra amino
acids could be added to the chain in a series of
condensation reactions.
 A molecule made up of many amino acids linked together
by peptide
bonds is called a polypeptide.
• A complete protein molecule may contain just one
polypeptide chain,
or it may have two or more chains that interact with each
other.
 In living cells, ribosomes are the sites where amino acids
are joined
together to form polypeptides. The reaction is controlled by
enzymes.
Polypeptides can be broken down
into amino acids by breaking the
peptide bonds. This is a hydrolysis
reaction, involving the addition
of water, and happens naturally in
the stomach and small intestine
during digestion.
Here, protein molecules in food are
hydrolyzed into amino acids before
being absorbed into the blood.
 Classification of proteins
 According to their shape, proteins can also be classified
into:
a. Globular proteins
 They are proteins whose molecules curl up into a ‘ball’
shape, such as myoglobin or haemoglobin. In a living
organism, proteins may be found in cells and other
aqueous environments such as blood, tissue fluid, and in
the phloem of plants.
 Globular proteins usually curl up so that their non-polar,
hydrophobic R groups point into the center of the
molecule, away from their watery surroundings. Their
precise shape is the key to their functioning.
 Enzymes, haemoglobin, antibodies are examples of
globular proteins
 Fibrous proteins are protein molecules that
b. fibrous proteins

do not coil up into a

ball but form long strands.
 Fibrous proteins are not usually soluble in
water and most have structural roles. For
example, keratin forms hair, nails, and the
outer layers of the skin making these
structures waterproof.
 Another example of a fibrous protein is
collagen which is found in skin, tendons,
cartilage, bones, teeth, and the walls of blood
vessels.
 major functions of proteins
• According to their functions, proteins can
also be classified into:
a. Structural proteins:
They are fibrous and tough, as well as
insoluble in water.
They are structural elements of
connective tissues, bones, tendons,
cartilages, nails, hair, and horns.
Collagen, elastin, and keratin are
examples of structural proteins.
 b. Enzymes

They are globular proteins that serve as

biological catalysts.
They catalyze metabolic reactions by
lowering the activation energy, which
increases the reaction rate.
 Protein enzymes include:
. DNA polymerase,
. lysozyme,
. nitrogenase, and
. lipase
 c. hormones
Hormones are polypeptides that are
made up of long chains of linked amino
acids.
They play critical roles in the regulation of
the body's physiological processes, which
include reproduction, growth and
development, electrolyte balance, sleep,
and so on.
Growth hormone (GH) and follicle-
stimulating hormone are two examples of
these hormones.
 d. Respiratory pigments
Respiratory pigments are globular
protein pigments that are typically
water-soluble. Example:
. Myoglobin: provides oxygen
to working muscles,
. haemoglobin: transports
blood to all tissues and organs via
the
blood,
 e. transport proteins
 Transport proteins are cell membrane structural
components.
 They create channels in the plasma membrane to
transport specific
molecules within the cells.
 Some of them are also found in animal blood and
lymph.
. Serum albumin (which transports
hemin and fatty acids),
. channel proteins, and
. carrier proteins are examples of
transport protein
 f. motor proteins
 motor proteins are involved in muscle
contraction and relaxation.
Example: Actin, myosin, kinesin, and
dynein
g. Storage proteins
 In cells, these proteins serve as a storage
reserve for amino acids and metal ions.
They can be found in eggs, seeds, and
pulses.
 Ferritin, ovalbumin, and casein are
examples of storage proteins.
 h. toxins
 Bacteria are the most common producers of these
proteins.
 Diphtheria toxin, Pseudomonas exotoxin, and ribosome-
inactivating proteins are among them. By causing
cytotoxicity, they aid bacteria in attacking and killing
their host organism.
 NB: The presence or absence of protein in the foodstuff
can be tested by using Biuret test. In this test, a protein
in an alkaline solution reacts
with copper ions to produce a mauve/purple color.
 Xanthoproteic test is a biochemical method, which is
used for the identification of amino acids containing
phenolic or indolic groups like phenylalanine, tyrosine,
and tryptophan (aromatic amino acids).
 class work
I. Describe the following questions accordingly.

1.Mention at least three roles of proteins for

living organisms.
2.Explain the difference between essential and
non essential amino
acids with examples.
3. How can we classify proteins into different
categories?
4.What is the difference between globular and
fibrous proteins?
5.How can we identify whether the foodstuff
contains protein or not?
 D. Nucleic acids
Objectives
• At the end of this section, the student will be
able to:
• describe the structures of nucleotides and
nucleic acids,
• differentiate between DNA and RNA, and
• explain the importance of DNA and RNA.
• Nucleic acids are chemical molecules made up
of phosphoric acid,
sugars, and organic bases that exist
naturally.
• Nucleic acids:
. are the cell’s principal information-
carrying molecules and
. they determine every living thing’s
inherited features by directing
the process of protein synthesis.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA) are the two main types of nucleic
acids (RNA).
 The structure of DNA and RNA
 DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA
for ribonucleic
acid. Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA, like
proteins and
polysaccharides, are macromolecules.
 They are also polymers, made up of many
similar, smaller molecules joined into a long
chain.
 The smaller molecules that form DNA and RNA
are called nucleotides.
 DNA and RNA are therefore polynucleotides.
They are often referred as nucleic acids.
 Most organisms carry their genetic
information in the nucleotide
sequences of DNA, but a few
viruses carry it in RNA.
Along the length of the DNA, there
are a series of chemical structures
called genes.
Genes are stretches of DNA that
code for RNA and amino acids and,
therefore, proteins.
 Nucleotides
• Nucleotides are made up of three smaller
components.
• These are:
• a nitrogen-containing base
• a pentose sugar
• a phosphate group
• There are five different nitrogen containing
bases in DNA and RNA.
• The four nitrogenous bases in the DNA
molecule are adenine, thymine,
guanine, and cytosine.
• An RNA molecule also contains four bases, but
have Uracil instead of
thymine. These bases are often denoted by
their first letters: A, T, C, G,
and U. The order and composition of the
different nucleotides sequences
determines the hereditary function of the
nucleic acids.
• The pentose (5-carbon) sugar can be either
ribose (C5H10O5) (in
RNA) or deoxyribose (C5H10O4) (in DNA).
• As their names suggest, deoxyribose is almost
the same as ribose, except that it has no oxygen
atom on its second carbon atom.
The components of nucleotides.
Structures of deoxyribose and ribose sugars
 DNA is a large molecule made up of two
strands (made of two chains)
of nucleotides wounded into a double
helix.
 RNA is much smaller and is single-stranded
(made of a single chain).
 There are three types of RNA:
. mRNA (messenger
RNA),
. rRNA(ribosomal
RNA), and
. tRNA(transfer RNA).
 Similarities and differences in function and
structure of the nucleic acids

Features DNA RNA

Nitrogenous bases A, G, C and T A, G, C and U

Pentose sugar Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar

Size Huge Much smaller
Stability Very stable Less stable-

Number of Two strands- allow Single-stranded-

strands coding of genes does not replicate
and replication
during cell division.
 Major functions of nucleic acids: DNA and
RNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
 It is the genetic material that stores all the information
required to be
transferred to the next generation.
 The genetic information is stored in its nucleotide
sequences. DNA has a unique property of replication or
production of its copy that can be transferred to a
daughter cell during cell reproduction.
 It specifies the biological development of all living
organisms and viruses.
 It carries the genetic code (instructions for protein
synthesis).
Information coded in the nucleotide
sequence of DNA for a particular
protein is first copied to mRNA (by the
process of transcription).
The code in the mRNA is then translated
into amino acid sequences of
protein.
Proteins are required to build an organism
and catalyze all of its biochemical
reactions there by controlling all of the
functions of
the cell or organism.
 Ribonucleic acids (RNA )
 It acts as genetic material in some viruses and has
enzymatic activity in other organisms (where it is called
ribozyme).
 Three types of RNA are present among organisms: All
three have essential roles in the development and
maintenance of life.
. MRNA: moves the genetic code from DNA to
ribosomes
. tRNA: helps the proteins synthesis by providing
a source of amino
acids (the building blocks of proteins).
. rRNA: form a complex with proteins making the
structure the
ribosome.
 Home work
I. Write true if the statement is correct or false if it is incorrect.

1. A deficiency disease caused by lack of iron in our

food is called goiter.
2. All proteins are made up of fatty acids and glycerol
molecules.
3. Phospholipids are molecules that are used for a
dipeptide bond.
formation.
4. DNA is made of 5- Carbone sugar ribose, phosphate
and a nitrogenous
base.
5. Calcium is one of the inorganic ions that are used for
bone and teeth
formation.
II. Choose the correct answer from the given options.

6. Which property of water allows the insect called

Raft Spider to walk on the surface of water?
A. surface tension
C. Liquidity
B. High specific heat
D. changing state
7. Which of the following is responsible for making
every amino acid
unique?
A. Amino group
C. Carboxyl group
B. Hydrogen
D. “R” group
8. During the formation of a peptide linkage, a
(n) ........................... is formed.
A. molecule of water C.
hydrophobic bond
B. disulfide bridge
D. hydrophilic bond
9. Polymerization reactions in which polysaccharides
are synthesized from
monosaccharaides
A. require the formation of phosphodiester bonds
between the amino acids.
B. are hydrolysis reactions.
C. depends upon van der Waals forces to hold the
amino acids together.
D. result in the formation of water
III. Describe the following questions accordingly.

10. Why are biological macromolecules considered

as organic?
11. Describe the similarities and differences
between glycogen and starch..
13 .Why do phospholipids form lipid bilayers in
aqueous conditions?
14. Unlike glycogen storage in human body, fat
storage is unlimited. Why?
15. Plants must get water from their roots to their
branches. Explain how
cohesion and adhesion might help plant get
water from the ground to its
upper leaves?
Unit 4

Cell Cycle
 4.1 What is a cell cycle?

Objectives
At the end of this section, the student will be
able to:
• define cell cycle,
• outline the different stages of cell cycle
and
• collect information on cancer
 Stages of the cell cycle
 A cell cycle is a sequence of events that takes place in the parent cell
as a means of distributing genetic materials thereby forming daughter
cells.
 There are two main divisions of the cell cycle:

A. Interphase
 Interphase is divided into three phases called G1, S, and G2.
i.G1 Phase (First Gap):
 It is the first stage of interphase.
 During this stage, cells
• are quite active metabolically.
• accumulate the building blocks of chromosomal DNA
and the
associated proteins
• store sufficient energy reserves to complete the task
of replicating each
chromosome in the nucleus.
ii. S Phase (Synthesis of DNA):
 It is the stage of DNA replication (Synthesis).
 iii. G2 Phase (second gap):
 It is the stage where the cell:
• replenishes its energy stores synthesizes proteins
necessary for chromosome
manipulation and movement.
• organelles are duplicated
• may continue growing during the G2 phase.
• makes the final preparations before entering into the
mitotic phase.

B. cell division
 It includes nuclear division –Karyokinesis (mitosis, or, M - stage)
followed by cytoplasmic division (Cytokinesis).
 It ultimately results in two identical daughter cells.
 Each daughter cell grows and starts the cycle the mother cell has
undergone.
 It has an internal controlling system that enables it to follow regular
pattern. If such regulatory system fails to work properly, the cells
excessively divide, and this may be called “cell madness”.
 Cancer will occur as a result of failure of controlling cell division,
Cancer cells do not respond normally to the cell cycle controlling
system; they divide in unregulated manner and may invade other
 The Cell division

Objectives
At the end of this section, the student
will be able to:
• recognize the causes of cell division
and
• explain the importance of cell
division
 A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It is their ability
to reproduce that distinguishes living organisms from non-living
organisms. This ability has a cellular basis.
 There must be at least a single cell to have an organism, such as the
unicellular organism amoeba. There are also multicellular organisms
with a huge number of cells, which initially start with a single cell or few
cells and become multicellular by repeated cell division.
 Cell division is a basic process in all living things where a parent or
mother cell, divides into two daughter cells. An ordered series of events
involving cell growth and cell division that produces two new daughter
cells are termed the cell cycle. Cells on the path to cell division proceed
through a series of precisely timed and carefully:
• regulated stages of growth,
• DNA replication, and
• nuclear and cytoplasmic division that
ultimately produces two
identical (clone) cells.
 As the cell grows the volume of cytoplasm relative to the cell
membrane will be small that it will have .low surface area to volume
ratio. As a result material transport across the cell membrane by simple
diffusion will be inadequate for the cell to survive.
 In unicellular organisms, cell division is a means of reproduction or
getting new offspring.) while in multicellular organisms, cell division is a
means of increasing cell number:
• for growth
• to replace damaged/dead
cells
• repair the body.
 In sexually reproducing organisms it occurs around reproductive organs
as a means of getting gametes or sex cells. .
 Cell division continues after G2 stage of the interphase.
 Cell division consists of two sub divisions:
i) Nuclear division (Karyokinesis)
 It results in the separation and distribution of duplicated genetic
materials of mother cell (dividing cell) to daughter cells by mitosis or
meiosis.
ii) Cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)
 It is the separation of the cytoplasmic components into the daughter
cells.
 Home work
I. Explain the following questions
accordingly.
1.What does cell cycle mean?
2.Mention the major events that takes place during the following phases of
interphase:
a. G1 Phase (First Gap)
b. G2 Phase (Second Gap)
c. S phase( synthesis)
3.What are the roles of cell division in unicellular and multicellular
organisms?
4.Distinguish the difference between nuclear division and cytoplasmic
division.
5.What are the causes of cell madness?
 4.2.1 Mitosis

Objectives
At the end of this section, the student will
be able to:
• outline the pattern of mitotic cell division,
• Explain how mitosis produces daughter cells as an exact
copy of
mother cell
• point out the importance of mitosis
 Mitosis is a type of nuclear division where duplicated chromosomes of a
single mother cell are distributed between two identical daughter cells,
having the same number and kind of hereditary materials
(chromosomes) as the parent nucleus.
 As a result, a diploid (2n) mother cell gives rise to two diploid (2n)
identical daughter cells.
 mitosis as nuclear division (Karyokinesis) is divided into a series of
phases namely;
i. prophase,
ii. metaphase,
iii. anaphase, and
iv. telophase
 i. Prophase (the “first phase”)
 During this phase:
• each duplicated chromosome, composed of two sister chromatids
and,
containing identical genetic material pairs up.
• the nuclear membrane breaks down, the nucleolus disappears.
• chromosomes shorten, thicken and become visible.
• the centrosomes begin to move to opposite poles of the cell, and
spindle fibres
emerge from the centrosomes (two in numbers and located
outside the
nucleus)

Sister chromatids: Mitotic spindle emerging from the centrosomes

 ii. Metaphase (arrangement
phase)
 During this phase:
• mitotic spindles are fully developed with centrosomes at the
opposite poles.
• chromosomes line up ( arrange themselves ) end–to–end
along the center or
metaphase plate ( equatorial plane) of the cell.
• each sister chromatids are attached to a spindle fiber
originating from
opposite pole

iii . Anaphase (migrating

phase)
 During this phase:
• cohesion proteins binding the sister chromatids together
known as centromere,
breakdown.
• separated sister chromatids are pulled apart by the mitotic
spindle which
 iv. Telophase (a reverse of
prophase)
 It is also known as a reversed prophase because what has disappeared
during the interphase will reappear during the telophase and vice versa.
 Accordingly,
• nuclear membrane reappears and surrounds each set of
chromosomes to create
two new nuclei arriving at opposite poles.
• The mitotic spindle breaks down and disappears.
 NB: Cytokinesis, also known as cytoplasmic division, will take place
after the four stages of mitosis (nuclear division) are completed.
However, its completion in animal cell is different from plant cell.
 As animal cell is surrounded only by cell membrane, cytokinesis enables
the cytoplasm of the mother cell to pinch or constrict in the middle. As
a result, the two daughter cells entirely separate.
 However, as plant cell is surround by hard cell wall in addition to the
cell membrane , the cytoplasm cannot simply pinch off and fully
separate; instead a new wall will be laid down between the two
daughter cells,
 Thus, the two adjacent cells remained joined together by the middle
wall called middle lamella
 The redistribution of duplicated chromosomes through mitosis is
important to get two daughter cells from single diploid mother cell that
are identical in quality and quantity of chromosomes.
 The process of mitosis is important to increase cell number, which in turn
is essential for growth.
 We, human beings, after the union of haploid ( n) sperm and haploid ( n)
egg started as a zygote, which is diploid (2n). Then the zygote by
repeated cell division through mitosis develops into multicellular
organism. This is how we human beings are made up of million cells.
 Cells have a finite life span; they wear out or become damaged; so they
need to be replaced continuously.
 The process of growth, repair and replacement of dead cells all rely on
cell division through mitosis.
 Unicellular organisms like Amoeba also use cell division through mitosis
to increase their number or population.
NB:
 Spindle fiber is long protein fiber extending from structures
called centrioles.
 It starts from the pole of the cell and extends up to the center, where it
is linked to duplicated chromosomes arranged for distribution.
 It is necessary to pull chromosomes separated towards the pole during
the anaphase stage of cell division
 Class work
I. Match the following stages of mitosis under
column A with their descriptions under
column B.
column A Column B
1. Interphase A. The mitotic spindle breaks down and
disappears
2. Prophase B. chromosomes line up the metaphase
plate
3. Metaphase C. separated sister chromatids are pulled
apart
4. Anaphase D. chromosomes shorten, and become
visible.
5. Telophase E. Cells accumulate the building blocks
of
chromosomal DNA
 4.2.2 Meiosis

Objectives
At the end of this section, the student will
be able to:
• outline the pattern of cell division by
meiosis,
• Mention the importance of meiosis
and
• point out the difference between
mitosis and meiosis
 The process of meiosis is a characteristic feature of organisms that
reproduce sexually.
 It occurs in reproductive organs such as :
• ovaries of female animals,
• testes of male animals,
• anther and ovules of flowering plants.
 Meiosis involves two fissions of the nucleus giving rise to four gametes
or sex cells, each possessing half the number of chromosomes (n)
present in the mother cell.
 Meiosis is called reduction division, as the final daughter cells are
haploid (n) as
compared to the diploid ( 2n) mother division.
 During gametogenesis (gamete formation) in human ovaries and
testes, the 46 chromosomes in the initial mother will be reduced by half
to 23 chromosomes by meiosis. As a result, the sperm or egg cells
nuclei will have 23 chromosomes (haploid, abbreviated as n).
 So, when sperm and egg join together at fertilization, a zygote that
contains the normal number of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs,Diploid
abbreviated as 2n) will be formed.
 different stages of Meiosis I and Meiosis II
Stage Description
Prophase I Each chromosome appears shortened and thickened form two
chromatids
Homologous chromosomes pair up.
Metaphas Chromosomes align on spindle fiber; lining up in the middle
eI metaphase plate.
Anaphase The centromere joining sister chromatids do not separate. The
I pair of chromatids from each homologous pair moves to the
end (pole) of the
cell. Reduction to haploid (n) will take place because
homologous chromosomes of male and female parents
separate.
Telophase The nuclear membrane reforms and the cells begin to divide. In
I some cells, the cell continues to full cytokinesis while in other
cells there may be prolonged interphase but with no further
DNA duplication.
Prophase New spindles are formed and the chromosome, still made up of
II paired chromatids moves toward the middle of the cell.
Metaphas The chromosomes line up in the metaphase plate , with the
e II spindle attached to the sister chromatids of each chromosome
coming from the opposite poles.
 Home work
I. Describe the following questions accordingly.
1. Mention the difference between mitosis and
meiosis.
2.what does gametogenesis?
3.Explain the difference between the following
terms:
i. chiasmata
ii. centromere
iii. Kinetochore
4.When does crossing over takes place between
chromosomes?
5.List at least three difference between meiosis I
 4.3 Renowned Ethiopian Geneticist

Objectives
At the end of this section, the student will
be able to:
• appreciate the work of a
renowned geneticist and
• look for more Ethiopian
Geneticist who contributed a
lot to their field
 Dr. Melaku Worede
 Dr. Melaku Worede, a geneticist and agronomist, is renowned for
employing science to benefit poor farmers and saving Africa’s seeds
from extinction.
 He played key role in the establishment of the Plant Genetic Resource
center in Addis
Ababa, where he became Director in 1979 and served for more than 14
years – until
retirement
 After retirement, Dr. Melaku developed his pioneer work on a framing
based native seed (landrace) conservation, enhancement and
utilization.
 He was able to develop and grow locally adapted native seeds (e.g
durum wheat) without commercial fertilizers or other chemicals.
 Home work
I. Write“True”if the statement is correct or
“False” if it is incorrect.
1. It is meiosis I that resembles mitosis.
2. Homologous chromosomes are duplicated one parent chromosomes.
3. Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells.
4. DNA duplication is the longest phase of the interphase.
5. Prokaryotic organisms like Bacteria do not divide by mitosis.

II. Explain the following questions.

1. What is the importance of meiosis to sexually reproducing organisms?
2. Mention at least two important features of cancer cells.
3. What is the difference between interphase and prophase?
4. What would happen if there is no cytoplasmic division at the end of
telophase?
If a cell is having 2n=40 divide by meiosis,
a. How many cells are formed at the end of meiosis I and meiosis II?
b. How many chromosomes are there in each daughter cells at the end of
meiosis I and meiosis II?
c. How many set of chromosome(s)/is/ are there at the end of meiosis I&
meiosis II?
Unit Five
Human Biology
 5.1 The Digestive System
Objectives
At the end of this section, the student will be
able to:
• discuss the structure and function of the digestive system (alimentary
canal and
accessory organs),
• classify the types of digestion along the alimentary canal,
• list the end pro140ducts of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats after
complete
digestion,
• express the site of absorption of digested food, minerals, vitamins, and
water,
• explore structural adaptations of the small intestine for the absorption,
• differentiate the absorption routs of different end products of digestion
(hint:
lacteals, capillaries), and
• group enzymes of the digestive system based on their roles and pH.
 All living organisms need nutrients to survive, plants can obtain nutrients
from their roots and the energy molecules required for cellular function
through the process of photosynthesis. Animals, however, obtain their
nutrients through the consumption of other organisms.
 At the cellular level, the biological molecules necessary for animal
function are:
• amino acids,
• lipid molecules,
• nucleotides, and
• simple sugars.
 However, the food consumed consists of:
• protein,
• fat, and
• complex carbohydrates.
 Animals must convert these macromolecules into the simple molecules
required for maintaining cellular function. The conversion of the food
consumed to the nutrients required is a multistep process involving
digestion and absorption.
 During digestion, food particles are broken down into smaller
components, which are later absorbed by the body. This happens by both
physical means, such as chewing and by chemical means, via enzyme-
catalyzed reactions.
 The human digestive system is composed of four digestive processes:
1. Ingestion
 Ingestion is the taking in of nutrients, in the mouth,
2. Digestion
 It the breakdown of complex organic molecules into smaller
components by enzymes step-wise, physical, and chemical processes
that begins in the oral cavity and extends to the small intestine.
3. Absorption
 Absorption is the transport of digested nutrients from the small
intestine to the cells of the body though finger like projection called villi
in the small intestine.
4. Egestion
 It is the removal of food waste from the body. The distinction between
excretion and egestion is based on the type of wastes excreted by an
organism. Undigested food that remains after digestion is expelled in
animals during the egestion process.
 Excretion is the process through which metabolic wastes are expelled in
both plants
and animals.
NB: The digestive tract of adult humans is normally 6.5 m to 9m long and
stores and breaks
down organic molecules into simpler components.
 Physical (mechanical) digestion begins in the mouth, where food is
chewed and formed a bolus (the Greek word for the ball) by the tongue.
It breaks food into smaller pieces, increasing the surface area for
chemical digestion.

 The chemical digestion of carbohydrate (starch) starts in the oral cavity

by an enzyme called salivary amylase or ptyalin. The food is then
swallowed and enters the esophagus a long tube that connects the
mouth to the stomach.

 Using peristalsis, wave-like smooth- muscle contractions, the muscles of

the esophagus push the food toward the stomach. The stomach
contents are extremely acidic, with a pH between 1.5 and 2.5. This
acidity kills microorganisms, breaks down food tissues, and activates
digestive enzymes. The chemical digestion of protein starts in the
stomach by the enzyme pepsin.
 Further breakdown of food takes place in the small intestine where bile
is produced by the liver, and enzymes produced by the small intestine
and the pancreas, continue the process of digestion.
 The smaller molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream through the
epithelial cells lining the walls of the small intestine.

 The waste material travels onto the large intestine where water is
 Components of digestive system
A. The Oral Cavity
 In the oral cavity, both physical and chemical digestion begins. It is
the point of entry (ingestion) of food into the digestive system.
 The process that takes place in the mouth includes:
 The food is broken into smaller particles by mastication, the chewing
action of the teeth.
 Saliva, the watery fluid produced by the salivary glands contain
amylase enzyme, and breaks down starches into simpler molecules.

 Saliva dissolves food particles and makes it possible to taste what is

being eaten.
 Saliva lubricates the food so that it can be swallowed.

 we detect the flavor when food particles dissolved in saliva

penetrate the cells of the taste buds located on the tongue and
cheeks.

 The tongue, positions and mixes food and forms a ball of food called
 B. The teeth
 The teeth are important structures for physical digestion .
 There are 4 types of teeth:

i. Incisors
 Incisors are eight chisel-shaped teeth at the front of our mouth specialized for
cutting.

ii. Canine
 Canines are teeth that are sharp and dagger-shaped specialized for tearing.

iii. Premolar
 They are teeth that are broad flattened and specialized for grinding.

iv. Molars
 Molars teeth tend to be even broader and have cusps that are even more
flattened.
 They are designed for crushing and grinding food.
 The last set of molars is the wisdom teeth, so-called because they usually do
not emerge until we reach about 16 to 20 years of age.
 Each tooth is covered with enamel, which is the hardest substance in the
human body.
 External and internal structures of teeth
 The teeth are the hardest substances in the human body. Besides being essential
for chewing, the teeth play an important role in speech.
 Parts of the teeth include:
a. Enamel
 Enamel is the hardest and white outer part of the tooth.
 It is mostly made of calcium phosphate, a rock-hard mineral.
b. Dentin
 It a layer underlying the enamel. It is a hard tissue that contains microscopic
tubes.
 When the enamel is damaged, heat or cold can enter the tooth through these
paths and cause sensitivity or pain.
c. Pulp
 It is the softer and living inner structure of teeth.
 Blood vessels and nerves run through the pulp of the teeth.
d. Periodontal ligament
 It is a tissue that helps to hold the teeth tightly against the jaw.
f. Roots
 Root is the part of the tooth that extends into the bone and holds the tooth in
place.
 It makes up approximately two-third of the tooth.
 g. Gums (gingiva)
 They are the fleshy, pink connective tissue that’s attached to the neck
of the tooth and the cementum.
h. Crown
 Crown is the crown of a tooth is the top portion of the tooth that is
visible.

Human dentition
 The conventional way of expressing the total number of teeth in the
human beings are represented:
. incisor(I),
. canines(C),
. molars(M) and
. premolars(P).
 It gives a set like I:C:P:M. For example, if it is given 2:1:2:3 for upper
teeth then, it indicates 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars of
the upper mouth on one side
 For instance, the dental formula of human beings (adults):
(2123/2123) × 2 = 32(2123/2123) × 2 = 32
 i.e there are 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3 molars. In adults,
dentition pertains to all types of teeth development. In a normal adult
there are 32 teeth.
 There are two types of dentition:
i. temporary and
ii. permanent.
 There are 20 teeth in the temporary dentition and 32 teeth in the
permanent dentition.
 In a child, there are 20 teeth present which are called milk teeth or
deciduous teeth. These teeth grow at the age of 6 years.
i.e. (2102/2102)×2=20(2102/2102) × 2=20.
These are two incisors, 1 canine and 2 molars.
 In order to represent the total number of the teeth in the jaw or mouth,
the whole formula is multiplied by two as the formula for one side of the
mouth.
NB:
 Both monkeys and human beings have the same set of teeth and the
same dental formula.
 Keeping teeth health
 There are many different bacteria that are found naturally in your mouth. These
bacteria, combined with food and saliva, form a thin film known as plaque on your
teeth. If these bacteria are given a sugar-rich diet, they produce a lot of acid
waste. This acid attacks and dissolves the tough enamel coating of your teeth.
Once through the enamel, the acid also dissolves away some of the dentine and
then the bacteria can get into the inside of your tooth. The bacteria will then
reproduce and feed, eating away at your tooth until they reach the nerves of the
pulp cavity causing toothache. The same bacteria can affect your gums, causing
periodontal disease.
 The symptoms include:
. tender gums,
. bleeding when you clean your teeth and
. eventually the possible loss of all your teeth, not from
tooth decay
but from gum disease.
 Taking in lots of acidic food and drink, such as fruits and cola, can also weaken the
enamel on your teeth.
 Tooth and gum disease are extremely common all over the world.
 They cause:
. pain,
. bad breath,
. loss of teeth and
. difficulty eating.
 Ways to avoid tooth decay include:
• Regular brushing of your teeth and gums twice a day.
 This removes the plaque from the teeth, preventing the build-up of a
sticky, acidic film over the enamel.
• Avoiding sweet, and sugary foods
 if the bacteria in your teeth are deprived of sugar, they cannot make
acidic waste and your teeth are safe.
• Have regular dental check-ups
 A dentist can clean your teeth more thoroughly than you can, and any
early signs of decay can be treated.
 C. The Esophagus
 The swallowed food travels from the mouth to the stomach by way of the
esophagus.
 The bolus of food stretches the walls of the esophagus, activating muscles
that set up waves of rhythmic contractions called peristalsis. Peristaltic
contractions, which are involuntary, move food along the gastrointestinal
tract . Peristaltic action will move food or fluid from the esophagus to the
stomach.

Rhythmic contractions of muscle move food along the digestive

 Class work
I. Explain the following questions
Accordingly.
1. What is the difference between excretion and egestion?
2.Describe the four digestive processes of human beings.
3. What does human dentition mean?
4.Mention the difference between
a. incisor
b. dentine
c. pulp cavity
d. cement
4.Define the term “peristalsis”.
5. What is the difference between periodontal disease and
toothache?
 D. The stomach
 The stomach is the site of food storage and initial protein digestion. it contains
three layers of muscle, which run in different directions so that the muscle
contractions can churn the food .
 The movement of food to and from the stomach is regulated by circular muscles
called sphincters. Contraction of the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) closes the
opening to the stomach, while its relaxation allows food to enter. The lower
esophageal sphincter prevents food and acid from being regurgitated up into the
esophagus. A second sphincter, the pyloric sphincter, regulates the movement
of food and stomach
acids into the small intestine.

A) Muscle is responsible for the contractions of the stomach B)Sphincters

regulate the
 The J-shaped stomach has numerous ridges that allow it to expand so that it can
store about1.5L of food. Millions of cells line the inner wall of the stomach.
 Activities in the stomach:
1. the cells secrete the various stomach fluids, called gastric fluids or
gastric
juice, that aid digestion,
2. contractions of the stomach mix the food with the gastric fluids,
and
3. it is involved in both physical (churning action if stomach wall) and
chemical digestion(e.g. digestion of proteins by the action of
enzyme pepsin).
 Approximately 500mL of the fluids in the stomach are produced following a large
meal.
 Gastric fluid includes:
• mucus,
• hydrochloric acid (Hydrochloric acid (HCl)),
• pepsinogens, and other substances.
 Hydrochloric acid kills many harmful substances that are ingested with food and it
converts pepsinogen into its active form, pepsin, which is a protein-digesting
enzyme. Pepsin breaks the long amino acid chains in proteins into shorter chains,
called polypeptides.
 The pH inside the stomach normally ranges between 2.0 and 3.0 but may
approach pH 1.0. Acids with a pH of 2.0 can dissolve fibers in a rug. It is the high
acidity of hydrochloric acid that makes it effective at killing pathogens and allows
pepsin to do its work.
 A layer of alkaline mucus protects the stomach lining from being
digested.
 Pepsinogen passes across the cell membrane and is activated by
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) to become pepsin. The pepsin breaks down the
proteins in the food, but not the proteins of the stomach’s cells because
these proteins are protected by the mucous layer.
 The esophagus does not have a protective mucous layer, so if the lower
esophageal sphincter (LES) is weak, stomach acid may enter the
esophagus and damage its lining. This causes pain known as heartburn.
 The partially digested food and gastric juice mixture are called chyme.
Gastric emptying occurs within two to six hours after a meal. Only a
small amount of chyme is released into the small intestine at a time.
 The movement of chyme from the stomach into the small intestine is
regulated by:
• hormones,
• stomach distension, and
• muscular reflexes
 The low pH of the stomach will denature the amylase and lipase that
were secreted in the mouth. Therefore, over time, the chemical
digestion of starches and fats will decrease in the stomach and their
further digestion will take place in the small intestine.
 Absorption in the stomach
 Although the stomach absorbs few of the products of digestion, it can
absorb many
other substances such as:
• glucose ,
• simple sugars,
• amino acids,
• some fat soluble substances,
• water,
• specific vitamins, and
• alcohol, etc.
 E. The small intestine
 The small intestine is up to 7 m in length, but only 2.5 cm in diameter. Most
chemical digestion takes place in the small intestine. Parts of the small
intestine:
i. duodenum
 It is the first 25 cm to 30 cm of the small intestine where the majority of
digestion occurs.
ii. jejunum
 It is the second component of the small intestine where absorption takes
place.
iii. ileum
 It is the third component the small intestine secretes digestive enzymes and
moves its contents along by peristalsis.
 The stomach absorbs :
• some water,
• Specific vitamins,
• some medicines, and
• alcohol.
 most absorption takes place within the small intestine and long finger like
projections called villi (singular: villus) greatly increase the surface area of the
small intestine.
 The cells that make up the lining of each villus have microvilli, which are fine,
threadlike extensions of the membrane that further increase the surface form
 Each villus is supplied with a capillary network that intertwines with
lymph vessels called lacteals that transport materials. Some nutrients are
absorbed by diffusion, but some nutrients are actively transported from
the digestive tract.
 Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into the capillary
networks; fats are absorbed into the lacteals.

Anatomy of a villus with the lacteal

 F. The accessory organs
 Accessory organs add secretions and enzymes that break down food
into nutrients.
 Accessory organs include:
i. the salivary glands,
ii. the pancreas,
iii. the liver, and
iv. the gall bladder.
 The secretions of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are regulated by
hormones in response to food consumption.
i. The salivary glands
 They are exocrine glands in the mouth that make saliva ,which aids in
digestion, keeps our mouth moist and supports healthy teeth.
 The saliva contains salivary amaylase that can break starch mouth.
 There are three types of salivary glands in our mouth. These are:
a. submandibular gland(SMG)
b. sublingual gland(SLG)
c. parotid gland(PG)
 ii. Pancreas
 The pancreas secretes bicarbonate that neutralizes the acidic chyme
and a variety of enzymes:
• trypsin- for the digestion of proteins
• amylase- for the digestion of carbohydrates
• lipase- for the digestion of fats
 . Pancreatic secretions contain the following digestive enzymes:
a. Trypsin
 It is a protein-digesting enzyme called trypsinogen is released from the
pancreas. Once trypsinogen reaches the small intestine, an enzyme
called enterokinase converts the inactive trypsinogen into trypsin, which
acts on the partially digested proteins.
 Trypsin breaks down long-chain polypeptides into shorter-chain peptides.
b. Erepsins
 They are released from the pancreas and small intestine. They complete
protein digestion by breaking the bonds between short chain peptides,
releasing individual amino acids. c. Amylase
 The intermediate-size chains are broken down into disaccharides. The
small intestine releases disaccharide enzymes, called disaccharidases,
which complete the digestion of carbohydrates
 d. Lipases
 There are two different types of lipid-digesting enzymes:
i. Pancreatic lipase
 It is the most common lipase, breaks down fats into fatty acids and
glycerol
ii. Phospholipase: acts on phospholipids.
iii. Liver
 The liver is the largest internal organ in humans and carries out the
following functions:
• break down ( emulsify) fats and detoxify blood,
• produces bile for the breakdown of fats in the duodenum,
• processes and stores the absorbed vitamins and fatty
acids,
• synthesizes many plasma proteins.
• breaks down haemoglobin from RBCs
 Bile is an alkaline digestive juice or fluid that contains:
• salts,
• bile acid
• cholesterol
• bile pigments(bilirubin and biliverdin)
• electrolytes
• water
 iv. gallbladder
 It is a small organ that aids the liver by storing bile and concentrating bile
salts.
G. Large Intestine
 The human large intestine is much smaller in length compared to the small
intestine but larger in diameter. It has three parts:
i. cecum
 Cecum is the most proximal part of large intestine and is located between
ileum and the ascending colon and it:
• receives the waste matter
• absorbs large volumes of water and electrolytes
• digest soluble and insoluble carbohydrates
ii. colon
 It is the largest part of the large intestine and home to many bacteria or
intestinal flora that aid in the digestive processes. During this time, some
inorganic salts, minerals, and vitamins are also absorbed with the water.
 The colon has four regions,:
• ascending colon,
• transverse colon,
• descending colon and
• sigmoid colon
 The main functions of the colon are to extract the water and mineral salts from
 iii. Rectum
 It is the last part of large intestine where feces is stored until
defecation. The feces are propelled using peristaltic movements during
elimination. The anus is an opening at the far-end of the digestive tract
and is the exit point for the waste material.
 Two sphincters regulate the exit of feces, the inner sphincter is
involuntary and the outer sphincter is voluntary.
NB:
 The large intestine houses bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (E. coli),
which are essential to life and use waste materials to synthesize
vitamins B and K.
 The bowel movement ensures the removal of potentially toxic wastes
from the body.
 Scientists have determined that cancer of the colon can be related to
diet. Individuals who eat mostly processed, highly refined foods are
more likely to develop cancer of the colon.
 Home work
I. Describe the following questions
accordingly.
1.Mention the roles of gastric juices for the digestive process of
food in the stomach.
2.What are the three sections of small and large intestine of
human beings?
3.Explain the roles of pancreas and liver for digestion of food.
4.where does physical and chemical digestion of food begins?
5.Describe the functions of microbes in the large intestine?
 5.2 The circulatory and lymphatic system

Objectives
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
• Demonstrate the structure of the heart using a heart model/diagram
• Differentiate between pulmonary and systemic circulations.
• Compare and contrast arteries and veins based on their structures
and functions
• Discuss types of blood
• Debate on the importance of blood donation and its health
implications on the
donors and recipients.
• Discuss the key functions and components of the lymphatic system.
 The circulatory system
 The circulatory system is a means by which blood moves throughout your body.
 The circulatory system:
• carries nutrients to cells,
• remove wastes away from cells,
• carry chemical messages from cells in one part of the body
to distant
target tissues,
• distributes heat throughout the body and, along with the
kidneys,
• maintain levels of body fluid,
• provide oxygen for the cellular respiration and
• transport of immune cells throughout the body to defend
against
invading organisms
NB:
 Our circulatory system has 96 000 km of blood vessels to sustain your 100
trillion cells.
 Your heart is about the size of your fist and with a mass of about 300g.
 The heart beats about 70 times/min from the beginning of your life until death.
 Every minute, 5L of blood cycles from the heart to the lungs, picks up oxygen,
and returns to the heart.
 Circulatory system contains the following components:

a. Heart
 The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood to circulate throughout
the body.
 The heart wall consists of three layers:
i. endocardium
 The endocardium is the thin membrane that lines the interior of the
heart.
ii. myocardium
 The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart.
 It is the heart muscle and is the thickest layer of the heart.
iii. epicardium
 The epicardium is a thin layer on the surface of the heart in which the
coronary arteries lie.
NB:The pericardium is a thin sac the heart sits in, often filled with a small
amount of fluid,
which separates the heart from the other structures in the chest
such as the lungs.
 The heart consists of two (right & left) parallel pumps separated by the
septum.
NB:
 The four-chambered human heart is composed of two :
i. thin-walled atria (singular: atrium) and
ii. two thick-walled ventricles.
 Blood from the systemic system enters the right atrium, and blood from
the pulmonary system enters the left atrium. The stronger and more
muscular ventricles pump the blood to the lungs and distant tissues.
 In the cardiovascular system of the heart four valves prohibit the
backflow of blood:
a. Tri-cuspid valve (Right atrioventricular RAV)
 It is a valve separates the right atria from the right ventricle.
b. Bi-cuspid valve (Left atrioventricular LAV )
 It is a valve separates the left atria from the left ventricle.
c. Semi-lunar valves
 The semi-lunar valves are half-moon-shaped (hence, the name semi-
lunar), and they prevent blood that has entered the arteries from flowing
back into the ventricles.
 It is a Valve that separate the:
• right ventricle from the pulmonary artery and
• left ventricle from the aorta.
 The human circulatory systems are a double circulatory system.
 It has two separate circuits and blood passes through the heart twice:
i. Pulmonary circulation.
 Pulmonary circulation - the movement of blood from the heart to the lungs
for oxygenation, then back to the heart again.
 The blood enters the right atrium through the superior and inferior venae
cava.

 The blood is then pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.

 From the right ventricle, blood is pumped through the pulmonary valve
and into the pulmonary artery.

 The pulmonary artery splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries and

 Finally, the blood in the arteries travel to each lung .

 ii. systemic
circulation
 It is the movement of blood from the heart through the body to provide
oxygen and nutrients to the tissues of the body while bringing
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary veins.

 The blood is then pumped through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.

 From the left ventricle, blood is pumped through the aortic valve and into
the aorta, the body’s largest artery.
 The aorta arches and branches into major arteries to the upper body
before passing through the diaphragm, where it branches further into the
iliac, renal, and suprarenal arteries which supply the lower parts of the
body.

 The arteries branch into smaller arteries, arterioles, and finally capillaries.
 Gas and nutrient exchange with the tissues occurs within the capillaries
that run through the tissues.
 Metabolic waste and carbon dioxide diffuse out of the cell into the blood,
while oxygen
 Home work
I. Describe the following questions
accordingly.
1.List at least the three functions of human circulatory system
2.Distniguish the difference between pulmonary and systemic blood
circulations in
terms of the pathway of the blood.
3.What are the three layers of our heart wall?
4.Explain the difference among the following valves of heart.
i. tricuspid valve
ii. Bicuspid valve
iii. Semi lunar valve
5.What is the difference between pericardium and septum?
 The Cardiac Cycle
 Cardiac cycle is the period of time that begins with contraction of the atria and ends
with ventricular relaxation. The period of contraction that the heart undergoes
while it
pumps blood into circulation is called systole but the period of relaxation that
occurs as
the chambers filled with blood is called diastole.
 Both the atria and ventricles undergo systole and diastole, and it is essential that
these
components be carefully regulated and coordinated .
Heart Sounds
 In a normal, healthy heart, there are only two audible heart sounds:
i. lub
 Lub or rest heart sound is the sound created by the closing of the atrioventricular
valves during ventricular contraction.
ii. dup” (or “Dub”)
 It is the sound of the closing of the semilunar valves during ventricular diastole.
 NB: The term murmur is used to describe an unusual sound coming from the heart
that is caused by the turbulent flow of blood. Murmurs are graded on a scale of 1 to
6, with 1 being the most common, the most difficult sound to detect, and the least
serious.
 The most severe is a scale of 6. When using a stethoscope to listen to the heart
sounds, called asculation, it is common practice for the clinician to ask the patient
to breathe deeply.
 Blood Pressure
 Blood pressure is the force of the blood on the walls of the arteries. It can
be measured indirectly with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer .
 A gauge on the sphygmomanometer measures the pressure exerted by
the blood
during ventricular contraction. This pressure is called systolic blood
pressure.

NB: Normal systolic blood pressure is less than 120 mmHg.

 Blood pressure is measured in the non-SI units of millimeters of mercury,
or mmHg.
 The cuff is then deflated even more, until the sound disappears. At this
point, blood flows into the artery during ventricular relaxation, or filling.
This pressure is called diastolic blood
pressure. Normal diastolic blood pressure is less than 80 mmHg.
 A systolic pressure of 120 mmHg and a diastolic pressure of 80 mmHg
would be reported as 120/80 (120 over 80).
 Reduced filling, such as that caused by an internal hemorrhage, will cause
diastolic blood
pressure to fall.
 b. Blood Vessel
 Blood vessels are the channels or conduits through which blood is
distributed to body tissues. The vessels make up two closed systems of
tubes that begin and end at the heart.
i. the pulmonary vessels
 It transports blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the
left atrium.
ii. the systemic vessel
 It carries blood from the left ventricle to the tissues in all parts of the
body and then returns the blood to the right atrium.
 Based on their structure and function, blood vessels are classified as:
a. Arteries
 Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood from the heart to
the rest of our body except pulmonary and umbilical arteries.
b. veins
 They are channels that transport deoxygenated blood from the body
towards the heart except pulmonary and umbilical veins.
c. capillaries
 Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels where substance exchange
takes place.
 c. blood
 Blood is a constantly circulating fluid providing the body with nutrition, oxygen,
and waste removal. Blood is mostly liquid, with numerous cells and proteins
suspended in it, making blood “thicker” than pure water.
 NB: The average person has about 5 liters of blood Liquid called plasma makes
up about half of the content of the blood.
 Blood is a highly specialized tissue composed of more than 4,000 different kinds
of components but the main components are:
i. Blood plasma
 Plasma is a yellow-tinted water, sugar, fat, protein, and salt fluid that transports
red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
 Plasma makes up 55 percent of our blood volume.
 Blood plasma:
• provides nutrients to cells while also removing metabolic waste.
• contains blood clotting factors, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins,
minerals,
hormones, enzymes, antibodies, and other proteins.
 About 500 proteins have been discovered in human plasma which:
• help the blood to clot,
• transport substances through the blood, and
• protect our bodies against pathogens
 ii. Blood cells
 There are three types of blood cells in the blood. These are:
a. Red blood cells or erythrocytes
 Red blood cells or erythrocytes:
• are relatively large microscopic cells without nuclei.
• make up 40-50% of the total blood volume.
• transport oxygen from the lungs to all of the living
tissues of the
body and carry away carbon dioxide.
• are produced continuously in our bone marrow from
stem cells at a
rate of about 2-3 million cells per second.
 Hemoglobin (containing iron) is the gas transporting protein molecule that
makes up 95% of a red cell. People who are anemic generally have a
deficiency in red cells, and subsequently feel fatigued due to a shortage of
oxygen.
 The red colour of blood is primarily due to oxygenated red cells. Human fetal
hemoglobin molecules differ from those produced by adults in the number of
amino acid chains.
 Fetal hemoglobin has three chains, while adults produce only two.
 As a consequence, fetal hemoglobin molecules attract and transport relatively
more oxygen to the cells of the body.
 Red blood cell adaptation for efficient oxygen
transportation:
 RBC have nucleus at the young stage and lose its nucleus when matured.
Not having a nucleus means that there is more space inside for
hemoglobin, so each red blood cell can carry more oxygen.
• Biconcave shape
 It gives a larger surface area for gaseous diffusion than a flat disc of the
same volume.
• Very thin cell surface membrane
 It enables oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse in and out rapidly.
• Flexible cell surface membrane
 It allows to squeeze along the narrowest blood capillaries.
b. White blood cells (leukocytes)
 They are blood cells that defend our bodies against pathogens.
 They occur elsewhere in the body as well, most notably in the:
• spleen, liver, and lymph glands.
• Most are produced in our bone marrow from the same kind
of stem cells that
produce red blood cells.
• Others are produced in the thymus gland, which is at the
base of the neck.
 WBCs are the first responders to our immune system. They seek out,
identify, and bind to alien proteins on bacteria, viruses, and fungi so that
they can be removed. Individual white blood cells usually only last for 18-
36 hours before they are removed, though some types live as much as a
year. There are several different kinds of white blood cells.
 The two important types are:
i. neutrophils
 They are white blood cells that have a lobed nucleus.
ii. Lymphocytes
 They are white blood cells that are smaller than neutrophils and which
have a large nucleus that takes up most of the cell.
c. Platelets or thrombocytes
 They are tiny cell fragments without nuclei enclosed in a membrane and
play an essential role in blood clotting. Clotting has two important
functions:
• it helps to stop blood from flowing out of the damaged vessel,
and
• it prevents disease-causing pathogenic microorganisms
(viruses, bacteria) from
getting into the body.
• they collect where a damaged blood vessel is leaking blood and
form a temporary
 Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
Cell types Number Life Functions
span
Erythrocytes(red blood 5-6million 120 days Transport oxygen
cells) and
help transport
carbon-
dioxide

Leukocytes(White blood cells 5000- 18-36 Defense and

10000 hours, immunity
some
can survive
as long as
a year

Platelets( thrombocytes) 250000- 9-10 days Blood clotting

400,000
 Class work
I. Describe the following questions
accordingly.
1.Explain the difference between the following terms:
i. diastole and systole
ii. lub and dub
2.what does blood pressure mean?
3.List the key functions of:
a. red blood cells
b. white blood cells
c. platelets
d. blood plasma
 Blood groups
 The blood grouping depends on which antigens are on the surface of the
red blood cells.
 Antigens are molecules which can be either proteins or sugars. The
types and features of antigens can vary between individuals due to small
genetic differences.
 The antigens in blood have various functions, including:
• transporting other molecules into and out of the cell,
• maintaining the structure of red blood cells, and
• detecting unwanted cells that could cause illness.
 Scientists use two types of antigens to classify blood types:
• ABO antigens and
• Rh antigens.
 Antigens and antibodies play a role in the immune system’s defense
mechanism.
 White blood cells produce antibodies and these antibodies will target an
antigen if they consider it a foreign object. This is why it is essential to
match blood types when a person needs a transfusion.
 If a person receives red blood cells with antigens that are not already
present in their system, their body will reject and attack the new red
blood cells. This can cause a severe and possibly life-threatening
 There are four ABO groups. These are:
i. Group A
 The surface of the red blood cells contains A antigen, and the plasma has
anti-B antibody. Anti-B antibodies would attack blood cells that contain B
antigens.
ii. Group B
 The surface of the red blood cells contains B antigen, and the plasma has
anti-A antibody. Anti-A antibody would attack blood cells that contain A
antigen.
iii. Group AB
 The red blood cells have both A and B antigens, but the plasma does not
contain anti-A or anti-B antibodies. Individuals with type AB can receive
any ABO blood type.
iv. Group O
 The plasma contains both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, but the surface of
the red blood cells does not contain A or B antigens.
 Since these antigens are not present, a person with any ABO blood type
can receive this type of blood.
 Rhesus factor
 During the 1940s scientists discovered another antigen on the red blood cell, the
Rhesus factor. Like the ABO blood groups, the Rhesus factor is inherited.
Individuals who have this antigen are said to be Rhesus positive (Rh+).
Approximately 85 % of the populations have the antigen. The remaining 15% of
individuals who do not have the antigen are said to be Rhesus negative (Rh–).
 Individuals who are Rh– may donate blood to Rh+ individuals, but should not
receive Rh+
blood.
 The human body has no natural antibodies against Rh factors, but antibodies
can be produced following a transfusion. Although Rh antibodies are produced in
response to antigens, it should be pointed out that the immune reaction is
subdued compared with that of the ABO group.
 Rhesus-factor incompatibilities become important for Rh+ babies of Rh–
mothers.
 If the baby inherits the Rh+ factor from the father, a condition called
erythroblastosis fetal is (a medical condition where an Rh negative mother’s
antibodies attack the red blood cells of an Rh positive fetus) can occur with
these condition and subsequent pregnancies. The first child is spared because
the blood of the mother and baby are separated by the placenta (a membrane
inside the uterus that exchanges materials between mother and baby).
 During birth, the placenta is shed from the uterus. Capillary beds rupture, and,
for
the first time, the blood of the baby comes into contact with the blood of the
 The mother’s immune system recognizes the Rh+ antigens and triggers
the production of antibodies. But, by the time the antibodies are produced,
the first baby is no longer connected to the placenta and has escaped the
potentially dangerous situation. However, a second pregnancy presents
problems if the fetus is Rh+.
 The mother retains many of the antibodies from her first encounter with
Rh+ blood. If antibodies cross the placenta, they attach to the antigen on
the red blood cells of the fetus, causing them to be destroyed.
 Symptoms when an Rh negative mother’s antibodies attack the red blood
cells of an Rh positive fetus include:
• anemia,
• jaundice, and
• an enlarged liver.

Home work
I. Describe the following questions
accordingly.
1. How can we classify blood groups?
2. What is the difference between antigen and antibody?
3. What are the effects of Rh factor on pregnancy?
 5.2.1 Blood Donation

Objectives
 At the end of this section, the student will be
able to:
• Discuss the reason for blood
donation,
• Outline the conditions for blood
transfusion, and
• Discuss blood type and Rh factor
compatibility.
 Blood is a very vital component of the human body. In case of an injury,
severe sickness, or during operations, loss of a large quantity of blood may
result in death. In such cases, blood from a healthy person called the donor is
given to the sick or a person that lost
blood under some other unexpected condition. The sick person who receives
blood is called
the recipient.
 The process of transferring blood from a healthy person (donor) to a person
deficient in blood(recipient) is called blood transfusion. Great care has to be
taken by the doctors while transfusing blood from the donor to the recipient.

Blood group compatibility

 If the blood from two different blood groups is mixed and if it is not
compatible, there may be a reaction between the antigen and the
complementary antibody which makes the red blood cells stick together, a
phenomenon known as agglutination. The agglutins
block the capillaries and even larger blood vessels. But if someone loses a lot
of blood in an
accident, an injury, during giving birth or an operation, then they may need a
blood
transfusion. This is when blood taken from one person is given to another to
save their life.
 Before a transfusion it is vital to know the blood groups of both the person
giving the blood (the donor) and the person receiving the blood (the
 Antigens and antibodies
Blood Antigen on red blood Antibody in
group cells plasma
A A b

B B a

AB A and B None

O None a and b
 blood compatibility chart
Key: x-shows coagulation
NB: The O blood group is termed “Universal Donor” while the AB
 Class work

I. Describe the following questions

1. List the main reasons for blood
donation.
2.What are the conditions for blood
transfusion?
3. Explain the relationship between
blood type
and Rh factor compatibility.
 The Lymphatic System
 A little amount of protein spills from capillaries into tissue voids on a
regular basis. Even if the leak is modest, the buildup of proteins in the
extracellular fluid (ECF) would be a significant problem; osmotic
pressure would drop and tissues would enlarge.
 The proteins are emptied from the ECF and return to the circulatory
system via the lymphatic system, a collection of vessels.
 Lymph, a fluid similar to blood plasma, is transported through lymph
vessels that are open-ended like veins. This low-pressure return system
is driven by slow muscle contractions against the arteries, which are
equipped with flap-like valves to prevent fluid backflow. Through the
right and left subclavian veins, the lymphatic system returns lymph to
the venous system.
 Lymph nodes are enlargements that appear in the lymph channel at
regular intervals. These contain white blood cells that, through the
process of phagocytosis, filter out any bacteria present.
 Lymph nodes store lymphocytes in addition to screening damaged cells
and debris from the lymph. The lymph nodes in our neck can expand
when you have a sore throat.
 The key functions of the lymphatic system:
• returns excess interstitial fluid to the blood
• the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the
digestive system
and the subsequent transport of these substances to the
venous circulation.
• The blood capillaries absorb most nutrients, but the fats
and fat-soluble
vitamins are absorbed by the lacteals. The lymph in the
lacteals has a milky
appearance due to its high fat content and is called chyle.
• defense against invading microorganisms and disease.
Lymph nodes and
other lymphatic organs filter the lymph to remove
microorganisms another
foreign particles. Lymphatic organs contain lymphocytes
that destroy
invading organisms.
 Components of the
Lymphatic System
 The lymphatic system consists of :
i. a fluid (lymph)
 Lymph is a fluid substance made up of lymphocytes and white
blood cells that is clear to white in color.
 Lymph is a component of the lymphatic system that is present in
lymphatic veins and other cavities throughout the body.
 It transports white blood cells within lymph nodes and bones,
removes interstitial fluid from organs, and fights disease-causing
and infectious bacteria invading blood cells.
 Lymph serves a variety of purposes:
• Removes metabolic wastes from tissue cells,
• Provides the body with nutrition,
• Aids in the invasion of microbe-caused
pathogenic diseases,
• Through lymphatic vessels, absorbs fat-
soluble vitamins and
other digested fat molecules from the small
intestine, and
• Maintain the composition of tissue fluid.
 ii. Lymphatic vessels
 Unlike blood vessels, lymphatic vessels transport only fluid away from
tissues.
 The lymph capillaries are the smallest lymphatic vessels, beginning in
the tissue spaces as blind-ended sacs.
 Lymph capillaries can be found in every part of the body except the bone
marrow, the central nervous system, and tissues that lack blood vessels,
such as the epidermis. The wall of the lymph capillary is made up of
endothelium, which is made up of simple squamous
cells that overlap to form a simple one-way valve. This configuration
allows fluid to enter
the capillary but prevents lymph from exiting the vessel.
 Lymphatic vessels are formed when microscopic lymph capillaries are
connected. Small lymphatic vessels connect to form larger tributaries
known as lymphatic trunks, which drain large areas. The lymphatic
trunks join together until lymph enters the two lymphatic ducts. The right
lymphatic duct drains lymph from the upper right quadrant of
the body. The thoracic duct drains the remainder Lymphatic tributaries,
like veins, have
thin walls and valves to prevent blood backflow.
 The lymphatic system lacks a pump like in cardiovascular system. The
pressure gradients that move lymph through the vessels are caused by:
 Organs of the lymphatic system
 Clusters of lymphocytes and other cells, such as macrophages, are enmeshed in a
framework of short, branching tissue fibers that distinguish lymphatic organs.
 Lymphocytes are formed alongside other types of blood cells in the red bone marrow and
are transported in the blood from the bone marrow to the lymphatic organs.
 When the body is exposed to microorganisms and other foreign substances, lymphocytes
proliferate within the lymphatic organs and are transported to the site of the invasion via
the blood. This is a component of the immune response that seeks to eliminate the
invading agent.
 Among the lymphatic organs are:
i. Lymph nodes
 Are parts of lymphatic system in which the lymph fluid flows.
• they collects and traps harmful matter, such as bacteria, viruses, and
bodily waste products.
• they filter the fluid and release it back into the bloodstream,
• they contain immune cells that help fight infection by attacking the germs
• they may swell when a person has a temporary infection and the swelling
occurs
as a result of immune cell activity in the lymph nodes. The location of the
swelling
often relates to the affected area. For example, an ear injury/infection may cause

swollen lymph nodes near the ear, while someone with an upper respiratory
tract
infection may notice swollen lymph nodes in their neck.
 ii. Tonsils
 Tonsils are lymphatic tissue clusters located just beneath the mucous
membranes
that line:
• the nose,
• mouth, and
• throat (pharynx).
 The tonsils’ lymphocytes and macrophages protect us from harmful
substances and pathogens such as bacteria and viruses that enter the
body through the nose or mouth.
 iii. Spleen
 The spleen is found in the upper left abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm
and posterior to the stomach. Its shape and structure are similar to that of a lymph
node, but it is much larger. The spleen performs the following functions:
• filters blood in the same way that lymph nodes filter lymph;
• lymphocytes in the spleen react to pathogens in the blood and
attempt to
destroy them;
• macrophages engulf debris, damaged cells, and other large
particles;
• removes old and damaged erythrocytes from the circulating blood;
and
• it produces lymphocytes, particularly in response to infection.
iv. Thymus
 The thymus is a soft organ with two lobes anterior to the ascending aorta and
posterior to the sternum. It is relatively large in infants and children, but after
puberty, it begins to shrink in size until it is quite small in older adults.
 The thymus’ primary function is to process and mature special lymphocytes known
as
T-lymphocytes or T-cells. Pathogens and foreign agents are not recognized by
lymphocytes while they are in the thymus. After maturing, lymphocytes enter the
bloodstream and travel to other lymphatic organs, where they aid in disease
defense.
 Thymosin, a hormone produced by the thymus, stimulates the maturation of
lymphocytes in other lymphatic organs.
 Home work
I. Explain the following questions.
1.Compare and contrast circulatory and lymphatic systems.
2.List at least three functions of lymphatic system.
3. Describe the functions of the lymph and lymph vessels.
4. What is the difference between lymphocytes and
macrophages?
5. List the key functions the following organs of lymphatic
system:
a. lymph node
b. tonsil
c. spleen
e. thymus
 5.2.2. Diseases of the circulatory and
lymphatic systems
Objectives
At the end of this section, the student
will be able to:
• Discuss on the following the
diseases of the circulatory and
lymphatic systems:
• leukemia,
• varicose vein,
• elephantiasis,
and
• cardiovascular
 i. Leukemia
 It is a type of cancer that affects blood-forming tissues, including bone marrow .
 There are several types of leukemia, including :
• acute lymphoblastic leukemia,
• acute myeloid leukemia, and
• chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
 For example, many patients with slow-growing leukemia are asymptomatic, and rapidly
progressing types of leukemia can cause:
• fatigue,
• weight loss,
• frequent infections, and
• easy bleeding or bruising.
 Treatment for slow-growing leukemia may include monitoring. Chemotherapy,
sometimes followed by radiation and stem-cell transplant, is used to treat aggressive
leukemia.
 ii. Varicose veins
 They are enlarged, swollen, and twisting veins that often have blue
or dark purple color. They occur when faulty vein valves allow blood
to flow in the wrong direction or pool. It is common in:
• pregnant women are more prone to varicose veins,
and
• overweight people are more prone to varicose veins
 Aching legs, swollen ankles, and spider veins are some of the
symptoms. It occurs when the valves in the veins fail to function
properly, allowing blood to flow inefficiently. Treatment for varicose
veins is rarely necessary for health reasons; however, if swelling,
aching, and painful legs occur, and there is significant discomfort,
treatment is available.
 iii. Elephantiasis
 Elephantiasis is a condition that causes a large enlargement of a part of
the body, usually the limbs. External genitals are another area that is
frequently affected.
 It is caused by a blockage in the lymphatic system, resulting in an
accumulation of a fluid known as lymph in the affected areas.
 Elephantiasis is caused by parasitic worms transmitted by mosquitoes
such as:
• Wuchereria bancrofti,
• Brugia malayi, and
• Brugia timori
 iv. Cardiovascular diseases
 Cardiovascular diseases are classified into several types. Among them
are:
• Abnormal heart rhythms, also known as arrhythmias;
• Aorta disease and Marfan syndrome are two examples,
• Congenital heart disease is a condition that occurs at
birth,
• Coronary artery disease is a condition that affects the
arteries in the heart
(narrowing of the arteries),
• Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism
(PE),
• A heart attack,
• Heart failure, and
• Muscle disease of the heart (cardiomyopathy).

Heart disease
 Heart and blood vessel disease (also known as heart disease)
encompasses a wide range of issues, many of which are linked to a
process known as atherosclerosis.
 Atherosclerosis is a condition that occurs when a substance called plaque
 Heart attack
 A heart attack occurs when a blood clot blocks blood flow to a portion of the heart.
 If the clot completely obstructs blood flow, the part of the heart muscle supplied by
that artery begins to die.
 Most people recover from their first heart attack and go on to live normal lives,
gaining many more years of productive activity. However, having a heart attack
means that you must make some changes. The medications and lifestyle changes
recommended by your doctor may differ depending on how badly your heart was
damaged and the degree of heart disease that caused the heart attack.
Stroke
 Stroke is a cerebrovascular disease. It occurs when a blockage or bleed of the blood
vessels either interrupts or reduces the supply of blood to the brain. When this
happens, the brain does not receive enough oxygen or nutrients, and brain cells
start to die.
 There are 2 types of stroke:
1. An ischemic stroke
 It is the most common type of stroke which occurs when a blood vessel that
supplies the brain becomes blocked, typically due to a blood clot. When a part of the
brain’s blood supply is cut off, some brain cells begin to die. This can lead to the loss
of functions controlled by that part of the brain, such as walking or speaking.
2. a hemorrhagic stroke
 It occurs When a blood vessel in the brain bursts.
 uncontrolled hypertension is the most common cause of this (high blood pressure).
Some stroke effects are permanent if too many brain cells die as a result of oxygen
deprivation. This population of cells is never replenished.
 Heart failure(congestive heart
failure)
 It occurs when the heart does not pump blood as efficiently as it should.
 Heart failure does not imply that the heart ceases to beat; this is a
common
misconception. Instead, the heart continues to beat, but the body’s
need for blood
and oxygen is unsatisfied. If left untreated, heart failure can worsen. It is
critical to
follow the doctor’s orders if your loved one has heart failure.

Arrhythmia
 An abnormal heart rhythm is referred to as arrhythmia. Arrhythmias come in a
variety of forms. The heart can beat too slowly, too quickly, or in an irregular
pattern.
 Bradycardia or a slow heart rate, occurs when the heart rate is less than 60
beats per minute.
 Tachycardia, or an abnormally fast heart rate, is defined as a heart rate of
more than
100 beats per minute. An arrhythmia can impair the function of our heart.
 our heart may not be able to pump enough blood to meet your body’s needs if
it has an irregular heartbeat.
 Home work
1. Explain the following disorders of circulatory and lymphatic system in
terms of their causes, symptoms, effects and treatments.
i. Leukemia
ii. Varicose veins
iii. Elephantiasis
iv. Cardiovascular diseases
2. What is the difference between
a. ischemic and a hemorrhagic stroke
b. Bradycardia and Tachycardia
3.What does Atherosclerosis mean?
 5.3 The breathing system

Objectives
At the end of this section, the
student will be able to:
• Draw and label the human breathing systems,
• Show the link between the human breathing system
and the
circulatory system, and
• Demonstrate the mechanism of breathing using
locally available
materials
 The respiratory system, which includes muscles to move air into and out
of the lungs, passageways through which air moves, and microscopic gas
exchange surfaces covered by capillaries, allows carbon dioxide to be
exhaled and oxygen to be inhaled.
 Gases are transported from the lungs to tissues throughout the body via
the circulatory system. The breathing system organs’ primary functions
are to:
• provide oxygen to body tissues for cellular respiration,
• remove the waste product, carbon dioxide,
• help to maintain acid-base balance, and
• portions of the breathing system are also used for non-vital
functions such as
• sensing odors,
• producing speech, and
• coughing.
 The nose, larynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli are
the major structures of the breathing system.
 In humans, air enters the breathing system through the two nasal cavities
or the mouth.
 The tiny hairs that line the nasal cavities act as a filter, keeping foreign
particles out of the lower breathing tract.
 The nasal cavity contains mucus, which warms and moistens the incoming
 Major breathing structures and their functions
A). The Nose
 The nostrils are the main entry and exit points of breathing system which are
located in the nose. The nasal cavity, which is divided into left and right
sections by the nasal septum, receives the inhaled air. The air moves from the
nasal cavities to the pharynx.
 Mucous membranes line portions of the nasal cavities, which contain
sebaceous glands and hair follicles that prevent large debris, such as dirt, from
passing through the nasal cavity.
 Goblet cells, a type of specialized columnar epithelial cell that produces mucus
to trap debris, are found in the nasal epithelium.
 With a constant beating motion, the cilia of the breathing epithelium help
remove mucus and debris from the nasal cavity, sweeping materials towards
the throat to be swallowed. Cold air, on the other hand, slows the movement of
the cilia, resulting in the accumulation of mucus, which can lead to a runny
nose in the winter. This moist
epithelium warms and humidifies the incoming air.
 The incoming air is warmed by capillaries just beneath the nasal epithelium.
Because
the thick mucus produced to defend you from pathogens blocks the surface
of the
receptors on the nasal epithelium, you lose your ability to smell during a
common cold
 B) Pharynx
 The pharynx is a tube made up of skeletal muscle and mucous membrane
that runs parallel to the nasal cavities. The pharynx, also known as the
throat, is a tube that runs from the base of the skull to the sixth cervical
vertebra.
 pharynx:
• receives air from the nasal cavity and
• receives air, food, and water from the oral
cavity,
• serving the breathing and digestive systems.
• opens into the larynx and esophagus from the
back.
 Only air can pass through the upper part of the pharynx (throat) while air,
food, and fluids can pass through the lower parts.
 The pharynx contains the:
• pharyngeal,
• palatine, and
• lingual tonsils.
 Sometimes the pharynx can be infected by microorganisms. The
pharyngeal tonsil has a large number of lymphocytes (a type of white
blood cell) and is covered with ciliated epithelium that traps and destroys
 C) Larynx
 The larynx is a structure that connects the pharynx to the trachea and
helps regulate the amount of air that enters and leaves the lungs.
 The epiglottis is a thin, elastic cartilage that covers the trachea’s opening
and is attached to the thyroid cartilage. When the epiglottis is closed, the
unattached end of it rests on the glottis. The glottis is made up of the
vestibular folds, true vocal cords, and space between
them. The inner borders of the real vocal cords are free, allowing
oscillation to make
sound. The size of true vocal cord membranous folds varies from
person to person,
resulting in voices with various pitch ranges.
NB:
 Males have greater folds than females, which gives them a deeper
voice.
 During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx lift upward, allowing the
pharynx to expand and the laryngeal epiglottis to swing downward,
closing the trachea opening. Because of these movements, food and
liquids cannot enter the trachea, which creates a bigger region for food
to travel through.
 D) Trachea
 The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx toward the lungs. The
trachea is formed by 16 to 20 stacked pieces of cartilage that are
connected by connective tissue.
 The elastic membrane of the trachea allows it to stretch and expand
slightly during inhalation and exhalation, whereas the rings of cartilage
provide structural support and prevent the trachea from collapsing.
 E) Bronchi and Bronchioles
 The right and left primary bronchi branch of the trachea towards the
right and left lungs.
 The primary bronchi further branch into the secondary and tertiary
bronchi.
 A bronchiole branches from the tertiary bronchi. Bronchioles, which are
about 1 mm in diameter, further branch until they become the tiny
terminal bronchioles, which lead to the structures of gas exchange.
There are more than 1000 terminal bronchioles in each lung.
 The muscular walls of the bronchioles do not contain cartilage-like those
of the bronchi.
However, smooth muscle can change the size of the tubing to increase
or decrease airflow
through it.
 Structures involved directly in gas exchange are found in the breathing
zone.
 The breathing zone begins when the terminal bronchioles join a
breathing bronchiole , the smallest type of bronchiole which leads to an
alveolar duct and opens into a cluster of alveoli. F)
Alveoli
 Comparison of atmospheric and
exhaled air
Component
Atmospheric air
Exhaled air
oxygen 21%
16%
Nitrogen 78%
78%
Carbon 0.04%
dioxide 4%

37 degree
Temperature centigrade variable
Moisture saturated
variable
 Breathing Movements
 Pressure differences between the atmosphere and the chest, or thoracic
cavity determine the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
 Atmospheric pressure remains relatively constant, but the pressure in
the chest cavity may vary. Gases move from an area of high pressure to
an area of low pressure:
• Inspiration occurs when the pressure inside the lungs is less
than that of the
atmosphere , and
• expiration occurs when the pressure inside the lungs is greater
than that of the
atmosphere.
 G)The diaphragm
 It is a dome-shaped sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic, or chest cavity from
the abdominal cavity, can regulate the pressure in the chest cavity
 . During inspiration:
• the diaphragm muscle contracts, or shortens, pulling downward.
• the chest volume increases and pressure in the lungs decreases.
• the atmospheric pressure is now greater than the pressure in the
chest
cavity, and air moves into the lungs.
 During expiration:
• the diaphragm relaxes and returns to its dome shape due to the force
exerted by the organs in the abdomen.
• the chest volume decreases and pressure increases.
• the pressure in the chest cavity is now greater than the atmospheric
pressure, and air moves out of the lungs.
 Changes in chest volume during inspiration and expiration:
A. The intercostal muscles contract and the rib cage pull upward because the
pressure in the chest cavity is lower than the atmospheric pressure, air
moves
into the lungs.
B. The intercostal muscles relax and the rib cage falls because the pressure in
the chest cavity is higher than the atmospheric pressure, air moves out of the

lungs.
 The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to provide oxygen
to the body and remove carbon dioxide from the body. While the former
deals with air and the latter with blood, they work together to coordinate
the operations of each system components.
 Other body systems, such as the digestive and neurological systems, are
crucial as well, but the circulatory and respiratory systems must work
continually even without a few minutes of rest.
 The circulatory and respiratory systems take oxygen from the air and
transport it throughout the body while the digestive and respiratory
systems take carbon dioxide from the body and release it into the
atmosphere. The lungs expand and fill with fresh air as a person inhales.
 The respiratory system works in collaboration with the circulatory system
to transport oxygen from fresh air to red blood cells in the arteries of the
lungs, as well as to release carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs’
air. This used air leaves the body when a person exhales.
 The heart circulates blood from the lungs, carrying oxygenated red blood
cells, down the arteries to the cells, where oxygen is released and carbon
dioxide is absorbed. Then the used blood is sent back through the veins
to the lungs, and the cycle begins again.
 Comparison of inspiration and expiration
Parts of respiratory Inspiration Expiration
system
1. Diaphragm Contracts and flattens Relaxes and moves
down-wards upwards to
dome shape
2. External Intercostal Muscles contract Muscles relaxes
Muscles
3. Internal Intercostal Muscles relax Muscles contract
Muscles
4. Ribcage And Sternum Move upwards and out Moves downwards and
wards inwards
5. Thorax Volumes Increases Decreases
6. Air Pressure Decrease in pressure Increases in pressure
inside inside thorax and lung
thorax and lung
7. Air Movement External air pressure Air forced out of lungs
drives by thorax compression
air into lungs at low and elastic recoil of
pressure lungs
 Disorders of the Breathing System
 All breathing disorders share one common characteristic: they all
decrease oxygen delivery to the tissues. The following activity will help
you to explore the different types of breathing disorders. Some of the
breathing disorders are:
i. Bronchitis
 Breathing difficulties can be caused by bacteria or viral illnesses, as well
as reactions to environmental pollutants.
 Bronchitis is a condition in which the airways narrow and the mucous
lining of the
bronchial tubes becomes inflamed.
• Excess mucus production,
• tissue swelling,
• constriction of the airways, and
• restricted airflow through the bronchi are all
symptoms of bronchitis
 In the bronchioles, the situation becomes even more acute.
 The bronchioles, unlike the trachea and bronchi, are not maintained by
cartilage bands to keep them open
 ii. Emphysema
 The alveolar walls become irritated in emphysema.
 The air sacs lose:
• their flexibility,
• stretch, and
• eventually rupture as a result of emphysema.
 As a result, exhaling becomes difficult, and air is trapped in the lungs
 Because there are fewer alveoli, the surface area available for gas
exchange is reduced, resulting in lower oxygen levels.
 Emphysema is caused by smoking, which is by far the most common
cause.
 Chronic bronchitis has been linked to emphysema. COPD
(chronicobstructive pulmonary disease) is the name given to both of
these conditions. COPD, like bronchitis, causes the bronchioles to
become more resist[pant to air movement.
 Although air moves freely into the alveoli, the smaller diameter of the
bronchioles increases barrier to air movement out of the lungs, making
exhalation difficult.
 The breathing rate increases as the body attempts to maintain
homeostasis.
 The circulatory system responds by speeding up the heartbeat.
 iii. Bronchial Asthma
 The inflammation of the bronchioles is linked to bronchial asthma.
 Exhaling requires more work than inhaling in asthma.
 The imbalance between the amount of air entering and leaving
the lungs must be addressed by increasing the exertion of
expiration.
 Common causes for asthma are:
• tobacco smoking,
• pollution, and
• allergens such as
• pollen,
• mold,
• dust, etc.
 H ome work
I. Explain the following questions.
1. write the relationship between the
human breathing system and
the circulatory system.
2. Where does gas exchange takes place
in our body? why?
3. Distinguish the difference between
inhalation and exhalation.
4. Describe the difference between the
following disorders of
breathing system in terms of their
 5.4 The Human Urinary system
Objectives
At the end of this section, the student
will be able to:
• discuss the structure and function of
the kidney,
• identify the process of urine
formation, and
• tell the role of the excretory system
in the homeostatic
process.
The functions of the excretory system include:
• blood purification
• waste removal and
• pH control.
 The kidneys produce 85% of the erythropoietin (EPO) needed to drive
red blood cell formation. The kidneys also undertake the final synthesis
step in the creation of vitamin D. When the kidneys fail, these functions
are weakened or removed entirely, causing homeostasis to be disrupted.
• Weakness,
• fatigue,
• shortness of breath,
• anemia,
• generalized edema (swelling),
• metabolic acidosis,
• increased potassium levels,
• heart arrhythmias, and other symptoms may
occur in
the affected person.
 The kidney should be thought of as a plasma regulator rather than a
urine
maker.
 External structure of kidney
 The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs in the abdominal cavity that are placed
directly below the liver. The endocrine system includes the adrenal glands, which are
located on top of each kidney. Blood is purified and filtered by the kidneys. The
kidneys filter all of the blood in the human body on a daily basis, consuming over
25% of the oxygen taken by the lungs in the process. Through aerobic respiration,
oxygen enables kidney cells to produce chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Urine
 It is the filtrate that comes out of the kidneys. The ureters, which are around 30 cm
long, transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. It is driven through the
ureters by waves of peristalsis, rather than passively draining into the bladder
(smooth muscle
contractions). Urine from both ureters is collected in the bladder. Its capacity is
diminished
during late pregnancy because to compression by the increasing uterus, resulting in

increased urination frequency. It is transported from the bladder to the exterior of the

body via the urethra.

 The only urologic organ that differs significantly between males and girls is the
urethra; all other urine transport systems are identical. Female urethras are shorter
than male urethras, measuring around 4 cm in length, and provide less protection
against fecal germs (approximately 20 cm). The increased frequency of urinary tract
infections (UTIs) in women can be explained by this length disparity. In males, the
urethra also serves as a reproductive organ, transporting sperm (sperm and
accessory fluids).
 Kidneys filter the blood and produce urine that is
stored in
 Internal structure of kidney
 The kidney is divided into three sections on the inside:
• an outer cortex,
• a medulla in the middle, and
• the renal pelvis in the hilum of the kidney.
 The hilum is the concave portion of the bean form where blood arteries and
nerves enter and exit the kidney, as well as where the ureters exit.
 The presence of renal corpuscles causes the renal cortex to be granular,
and nephron tubules can be observed throughout the renal cortex and
renal pyramids, which make up the majority of the renal medulla.
 Each kidney has an average of eight renal pyramids. The urine produced
by the nephrons passes via the renal pelvis and into the ureters, which
transport it to the bladder
 The network of blood arteries in the kidney is an important part of its
anatomy and function because it filters blood. The renal hilum is where the
arteries, veins, and nerves that supply the kidney enter and exit.
 Renal blood flow begins with the aorta branching into renal arteries and
finishes with the renal veins exiting to join the inferior vena cava, which
takes blood back to the heart’s right atrium. Before branching into several
afferent arterioles and entering the capillaries supplying the nephrons, the
renal arteries split multiple times to form additional blood vessels.
 The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Each kidney is made up
of over one million nephrons that dot the renal cortex. A nephron
consists of three parts:
• a renal corpuscle,
• a renal tubule, and
• the associated capillary network.
Renal corpuscle
 The glomerulus, a network of capillaries that surrounds the renal
corpuscle in the renal cortex, is made up of the glomerular or Bowman’s
capsule, a cup-shaped chamber that surrounds it.
Renal Tubule
 The renal tubule is a long, convoluted structure that emerges from the
glomerulus and can be split into three segments based on function:
1. the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT),
2. the loop of Henle, which forms a loop with
descending and
ascending limbs), and
3. the Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT).
 The DCT, or distal collecting duct, joins and discharges the nephron’s
contents into
collecting ducts. Urine will eventually pass via the renal pelvis and into
the ureters.
 Capillary Network within the Nephron
 The nephron receives blood that needs to be filtered via a capillary network
that branches off from the renal arteries. Afferent arterioles are the branches
that enter the glomerulus.
 Efferent arteriole refers to the branch that leaves the glomerulus. The
glomerular capillary bed is the capillary network that runs through the
glomerulus.
 The peritubular capillary network surrounds and interacts with portions of the
renal tubule after the efferent arteriole exits the glomerulus.

The formation of urine

 Kidneys filter blood in a three-step process:
 The nephrons filter blood as it passes through the glomerulus’ capillary
network. Except for proteins, almost all solutes are filtered out into the
glomerulus by a process known as glomerular filtration.
 The filtrate is collected in the tubules of the kidneys. Tubular reabsorption is
the process by which most of the solutes are reabsorbed in the PCT. The
filtrate continues to exchange solutes and water with the peritubular capillary
network in the Henle loop. During this phase, water is also reabsorbed.
Tubular secretion, which is essentially the inverse of tubular reabsorption,
secretes extra solutes and wastes into the renal tubules.
 The collecting ducts collect filtrate from the nephrons, which are then carried
into the renal pelvis and eventually to the ureters as urine.
The process of urine formation in the kidney
 Each part of the nephron performs a different function in filtering waste
and maintaining
Homeostatic balance:
1. The glomerulus forces small solutes out of the blood by pressure.
2. The proximal convoluted tubule actively transfers toxins and
medications from the
interstitial fluid into the filtrate, reabsorbing ions, water, and
nutrients from the filtrate.
 By selectively secreting ammonia (NH3) into the filtrate, where it
interacts with H+ to
generate NH4+, the proximal convoluted tubule also regulates blood
pH.
More ammonia is secreted when the filtrate is acidic.
3. Aquaporin-containing cells border the descending loop of Henle,
allowing water to flow
from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid.
4. Na+ and Cl ions diffuse into the interstitial fluid in the thin section of
the ascending
loop of Henle. These same ions are actively transferred into the
interstitial fluid in the
thick region. The filtrate becomes increasingly dilute as it passes up
the leg because
 Class work

I. Explain the following Questions.

1.List at least three functions of
excretory system.
2.What are the three main sections of
the kidney?
3.Write the process of urine formation
in the kidney.
 5. 5 The immune system
Objectives
 At the end of this section, the student will be
able to:
• define what is immunity,
• mention types of immunity, and
• discuss what is innate and acquired
immunity.
 Immunity is defined as the body’s ability to prevent the invasion of pathogens. The
immune system includes varieties of defenses against:
• viruses,
• bacteria,
• fungal infections, and
• parasites (such as threadworms).
 The lymphatic system is part of the broader immune system.
 There are two types of immune systems. These are:

i. innate immune system

 The body’s initial line of defense against invading microbial diseases is innate
immunity.
 Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are produced by innate immune cells, help
to maintain homeostasis by regulating endogenous processes including inflammation
and cell death.
 These are the non-specific, unchanging lines of defenses which include:
• Physical and chemical barriers to pathogens.
• To attract immune cells to infection locations, cytokines and other
chemical
agents are produced.
• To recognize bacteria, stimulate cells, and facilitate the clearance of
dead
cells or antibody complexes, the complement cascade is activated.
• Specialized white blood cells identify and remove foreign compounds
 ii) Adaptive (Acquired) immune system
 After an initial reaction to a new pathogen, adaptive (or acquired)
immunity is formed, resulting in an increased response to future exposure
to the same disease.
 Vaccination is based on this acquired immunity process.
 Because bacteria and viruses are always changing and evolving in an
‘arms war’ with our immune systems, this is critical.
 The adaptive immune system has the following characteristics:
• During the antigen presentation process, particular “non-self”
antigens are
recognized.
• The development of targeted responses to eradicate specific
infections or
pathogen-infected cells.
• Immunological memory is the process through which signature
antibodies or T cell
receptors “remember” each infection.
NB:
 If another infection arises, these memory cells can be summoned to
eliminate the invader swiftly.
 Cells of the immune system
 The immune system is made up of numerous different cell types and subtypes.
 The following are some of the most common types:
a) Lymphocytes
 Lymphocytes are white blood cells that:
• travel between the bloodstream and the lymphatic system.
• are crucial in the battle against infection.
• are formed in the bone marrow.
• Some move to the thymus and mature into T cells, while others
mature
into B cells in the bone marrow.
• the three most common types of lymphocyte are:
• T cells,
• B cells, and
• natural killer cells.

b.) Neutrophils
 The most common form of white blood cell and they play a vital role in the innate
immune system. They are:
• A type of phagocyte that engulf and then digest cellular debris and
pathogens).
• ordinarily located in the bloodstream, but chemical signals like Interleukin-8
cause them to be promptly recruited to the site of injury or infection.
 iii.) Macrophages:
 They are phagocytes that play a role in both the innate and adaptive
immune systems are another form of phagocyte.
• Foreign chemicals,
• pathogenic bacteria, and
• cancer cells are all targets for them.
 Lymphocytes and other immune cells are also stimulated by
macrophages to respond to infections. iv.) Dendritic cell
 They are Antigen-presenting cells serve as intermediaries between the
innate and adaptive immune systems. They are frequently found in
tissues that come into contact with the outside world, such as:
• the skin,
• nose,
• lungs,
• stomach, and
• gut linings.
 They travel to lymph nodes in response to infections, where they interact
with T cells and B cells to start the adaptive immune response.
 V.) Antigens and antibodies
 Antibodies (also called immunoglobulin's) are Y-shaped proteins
produced by B-cells that bind to antigens on the surface of foreign
substances like bacteria and viruses.
 This recognizes and identifies the foreign thing as “non-self,” prompting
other immune cells to attack it.

vi.) Hormones
• The immune system produces a wide range of hormones.
• Lymphokines are the common name for these hormones.
• The immune system is suppressed by:
• steroids and
• corticosteroids (adrenaline components).
 5.6 Renowned Physicians in Ethiopia

Objectives
At the end of this section, the student
will be able to:
• mention renowned Ethiopian
physicians,
• discuss contributions of renowned
Ethiopian physicians, and
• appreciate the contributions of
Ethiopian physicians.
 1. Prof. Asrat Woldeyes (1928-
1999)
 He was the first distinguished Ethiopian surgeon and professor of medicine in
Addis Ababa University. He was the first Ethiopian to qualify in this field of
medicine in the West after medical studies at Edinburgh University.
 He devoted the majority of his working life to surgery at Addis Adaba’s two
main hospitals, as well as the deanship of medicine at the university.

Prof. Asrat Woldeyes

 2. Dr. Widad Kidane Mariam
 She was born to an Ethiopian emigrant family in Palestine during the Italian
occupation of her country of origin.
 She studied medicine at the American University of Beirut and became the
“first female” medical practitioner and topmost physician administrator in
charge of the medical services division in the Ministry of Health in the 1960s-
1970s.
 When she was asked to be the first Ethiopian gynecologist to volunteer for
the Swedish Save the Children Fund project in Addis Abeba, she also became
a founding organizer responsible for the establishment of the first Ethiopian
Family Planning Association as well as Maternal and Child services for the
homeless in Addis Ababa Municipality.

Dr. Widad Kidane

 H ome work
Review Questions

I. Write “True” if the statement is correct or “False” if it is

incorrect.
1. Blood pressure is highest in veins.
2. Atherosclerosis is the build-up of plaque inside arteries.
3. Platelets are blood cells that fight infections.
4. Most absorption of nutrients takes place in the stomach.
5. The kidneys are the main organs of the excretory system.
II. Choose the correct answer from
alternatives.
1.The organ that releases many enzymes that aid in the breakdown
of all types of organic molecules:-
A. Mouth B. Gall Bladder C. Stomach D. Liver
E. Pancreas
2.The tube though which food and air (that you breathe) passes:-
A. Esophagous B. Larynx C. Trachea D.
Pharynx E. Rectum.
3. Which of the following is not a major task of the digestive
system?
A. Secretion B. Digestion C. Absorption D. Elimination
E. Circulation
4. Which of the following is not considered an accessory gland to the
digestive
system?
A. Wall of the gastrointestinal tract GI)
B. Liver
C. Salivary Glands
5. Rank the following blood vessels in order of their average
pressure, from highest
to lowest: artery, vein, arteriole, venule, aorta, capillary.
A. Capillary > vein >venule> arteriole > artery > aorta
B. Aorta > arteriole >venule> artery > vein > capillary
C. Aorta > artery > arteriole > capillary >venule> vein
D. Capillary > arteriole >venule> artery > vein > aorta
E. None of the above
6. Which of the following statement about circulatory systems is
false?
A. In closed circulatory systems, blood flows through vessels that
are separate
from the interstitial fluid of the body.
B. The earthworm has a closed circulatory system.
C. In an open circulatory system, the hemolymph empties into
the body cavity.
D. Lobsters are organisms that have closed circulatory systems.
7. How does the structure of red blood cells allow them to deliver
oxygen to the cells
of the body?
A. Their size and shape allow them to carry and transfer
oxygen.
B. Their disc shape contains many small vesicles that allow
them to carry and
transfer oxygen.
C. They have nuclei and do not contain haemoglobin.
D. They contain coagulation factors and antibodies.
E. All of the above
8. Which of the following best describes plasma?
A. It is a protein synthesized in the liver.
B. It is a liquid that contains only lipids and antibodies.
C. It is a blood component that is separated by spinning blood.
D. It is an antibody produced in the mucosal lining.
E. All of the above except A
9. Which of the following is a function of the breathing system?
A. gas exchange C. transport of oxygen
10. The space at the back of the mouth, which leads either to the airway
or the
esophagus is the:
A. larynx B. nasal cavity C. Pharynx D. None
of the above
11. Oxygen from the air enters the bloodstream through:-
A. cardiac notch B. pulmonary vein C. alveoli D. paranasal
sinuses E. larynx
12. When the diaphragm contracts (is pulled downward), _______ occurs.
A. inhalation C. hiccup
B. exhalation D. Lung collapse E. Both exhalation and
inhalation
13. Which one of the following is the correct path urine takes as it moves
through the
urinary system?
A. kidneys - ureters - bladder – urethra
B. bladder - kidneys -urethra – ureters
C. ureters - kidneys - bladder – urethra
D. Urethra – kidneys – Ureters – bladder
E. None of the above
14. Which of the following substances are not filtered out of the blood in the
nephrons?
A. Blood cells and proteins C. Urea and water
B. Glucose and amino acids D. Salts and hormones E. A and C
15. All of the substances that are removed from the blood via the Bowman’s
capsule
are called __.
A. Plasma B. Filtrate C. Urine D. Lymph E. C and D
16. What substances must be reabsorbed back into the blood from the
convoluted
tubule and loop of Henle?
A. Water B. Salts C. Glucose D. All of the above E.
None
17. Urine is primarily composed of:
A. Lymph B. Red blood cells C. Carbon dioxide D. Water E.
Oxygen
18. What is the role of liver in the maintenance of homeostasis?
A. Stores extra carbohydrates in the form of glycogen
B. Produces bile to aid in fat digestion
C. Produces clotting proteins
D. All of the above
E. Only A and B
III. Fill in the blank with the term that best completes the sentence.
1. Blood pressure that is higher than normal termed ____________.
2. Blood type is determined by the presence or absence of _______
on blood cells.
3. Tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place are called
____________. 4.The disease in which air passages of the lungs
periodically become too narrow is___
5. A wave of involuntary muscle contractions that moves food
through the digestive
system is called ____________.
6. The physical breakdown of chunks of food into smaller pieces is
referred to as __
digestion.
7. The small intestine is lined with tiny finger-like projections
named ____________.
8. Solid waste that leaves the large intestine is known as
____________.
9. Nutrients needed in small amounts for the body to function
properly are_____.
 IV. Short Answer Items
1. Which enzymes secreted by the pancreas promote digestion?
2. Explain the chemicals and processes involved in protein and
carbohydrate
digestion. Why are carbohydrates not digested in the stomach?
3. List the lipid-digesting enzymes secreted from the pancreas. Do
these enzymes
allow for a complete breakdown of lipids?
4. How is the duodenum protected against stomach acid? Why does
pepsin remain
inactive in the duodenum?
5. In cases of extreme obesity, a section of the small intestine may
be removed.
What effect do you think does this procedure have on the patient?
6. Describe what the inside of the small intestine looks like and how
this organ
increases the efficiency of its operation.
 Write the
structures A-L
7. Discuss functions of the circulatory system?
8. Mention types of blood circulation in human body?
9. Define pulmonary Circulation.
10. What is the difference between pulmonary and Systemic
Circulation?
11. Discuss the effect of fat deposits on the artery walls.
12. State functions of the right atrium.
13. What is the function of the right ventricle?
14. Why muscles of the heart on the left side are thicker?
15. Label the following kidney diagram following the letters pointed
at each structure:
Write the
structures A-F