GEOLOGY FOR STRUCTURAL

GEOLOGY AND
ENGINEERS ROCK MECHANICS
SUMMARY
While in field, the foremost thing a geologist should do is to note
down the attitude of the rock or of any structure he/she intends to
study.
Attitude is a fundamental geometrical attribute that describes how
a plane or a line is oriented on the surface of the earth. Attitude of
any geological structure undoubtedly constitutes the starting point
of any geological work of whatsoever nature.
Measurement of the attitude of structures especially involves the
concepts of direction, planar structures, linear structures, dip of
beds, strike line, bearing and back-bearing.
SUMMARY
The direction system used by a structural geologist is either the
conventional system or the azimuth system.
The attitude of planar structures is defined by dip of beds and
strike line, while those of linear structures by plunge and pitch.
Bearing and back-bearing are used to locate any object or yourself
in a topo-sheet.
The most fundamental geological field instrument, clinometer
compass, is described including its use in field.
In general, the chapter provides the basic concepts of attitudes of
structures, thus enabling a beginner to carry out independent field
work in structural geology.
INTRODUCTION
Structural geology is basically a field-based discipline, and its study is
accomplished in a few stages.
The first is the collection of data in field. This is followed by processing
of field data in the laboratory by means of suitable methods and
techniques.
All these lead to preparation of several types of diagrams, projections
and structural maps.
The next stage generally includes interpretation of the information or
results that are made available from field and laboratory investigations.
Understanding of structural details of any area or region, e.g.
deformation pattern, deformation history and modes/mechanisms of
rock deformation, requires basic data that are collected from field only.
INTRODUCTION
Attitude is a fundamental geometrical attribute that describes how a
plane or a line is oriented on the surface of the earth.
Planes and lines may be oriented as inclined, vertical or horizontal
with respect to the ground surface and may also show some
geometric relations with the surface.
WHAT IS DIRECTION?
In structural geology, direction is one of the most commonly used
words. Direction can be defined as the orientation of an object with
respect to north.
On the surface of the earth, north has been taken as a key
reference for all direction systems.
THE DIRECTION SYSTEM

CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM

In the conventional system, the direction can be read with reference to a

circle of 360 angle in which N (0, 360), E (90 ), S (180 ) and W (270 ) are
called primary directions or cardinal directions. The other directions can
be expressed as, say, N30 E, E42 S, S28 W, W38 N, etc.
Secondary directions, are thus written as NE, SE, SW and NW.
Another set of directions as dividers of these directions can thus be
written as NNE, ENE, ESE, SSE, SSW, WSW, WNW and NNW. These are
called tertiary directions.
THE DIRECTION SYSTEM

AZIMUTH SYSTEM

In the azimuth system, north is taken as the starting point, i.e. 000
or 360 . For measuring any direction, one has to move clockwise,
i.e. eastwards, and read the angle by which one has moved from
000 , say 067 , 142 , 214, 307 , etc.
The azimuth system is thus very simple because a direction can be
expressed in short.
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURES
In structural analysis, orientation of rocks as they occur in field is
very important. Rocks can be considered to constitute planes, and
these planes contain structural features within them as well as on
their surfaces.
Planes in rocks are penetrative features and thus can be
represented in three dimensions. These are called planar structures
such as bedding, fault planes, foliations, joints, dikes and sills.
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURES
Attitude of a planar structure is mainly given by its dip and strike.
Dip is the amount of inclination of a bed with the horizontal plane
as measured in a vertical plane.
If a bed is horizontal, its amount of dip will be 00 , and if it is
vertical, the amount of dip will be 90
The direction of dip is always shown/indicated in the horizontal
plane, as mentioned above, because we always read the direction
by magnetic needle, which moves freely only when it is horizontal.
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURES
A strike line or strike of a bed is the line formed by the intersection of
the bed with the horizontal plane.
A strike line always bears two important properties: (i) it always exists on
the ground surface, and (ii) it is a straight line.
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURES
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURES
TRUE DIP VS APPARENT DIP

True dip can thus be defined as the amount of inclination of a bed

with the horizontal plane as measured in a vertical plane at right
angle to the strike, and it is the highest amount of inclination of a
bed.
An apparent dip can therefore be defined as the amount of
inclination of a bed with the horizontal plane as measured in any
direction other than its true dip, and it is always smaller in amount
than the true dip.
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURES
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURES
ATTITUDE OF LINEAR
STRUCTURES
Unlike planar structures that are penetrative, there are some
structures in rocks that are commonly non-penetrative and as such
are noticed only on the rock surfaces. However, some of them may
penetrate up to a few millimetres in the rock. These features show
linear attitudes and are therefore called linear structures
As such, they can be represented in two dimensions. Common
examples of linear structures include lineation, which is the linear
alignment of mineral constituents of a rock. Fold axis, grooves and
slickensides also constitute linear structures. Intersection of two
planar structures of a rock constitutes a linear structure called
intersection lineation. The attitude of a line or linear structure can
be described in terms of plunge and pitch, as described below.
ATTITUDE OF LINEAR
STRUCTURES
PLUNGE
The plunge is defined as the angle made by a linear structure with
its projection on the horizontal plane. The attitude of any linear
structure is thus given by two quantities, the direction of its trend
and the amount of its plunge.

PITCH
The acute angle made by the linear structure with the strike of the
plane is called the pitch (also called the rake) of the linear structure.
ATTITUDE OF LINEAR
STRUCTURES
ATTITUDE OF LINEAR
STRUCTURES
FOLDS
Folds are bends formed as a result of permanent deformation of
originally planar surfaces of rock layers.
They can develop on any planar surfaces in rocks such as bedding
or foliation, and their formation reflects ductile behaviour of the
layers in which they are developed.
They are best developed in sedimentary strata.
Folds occur on all scales ranging from microscopic to several
kilometres and can develop in practically all types of rock. They can
occur as single or isolated structures as well as in groups.
PARTS OF A FOLD
The point on the fold surface where curvature is highest is called
hinge, and the line on the fold surface that joins the points of the
highest curvature is called hinge line. Folds are generally studied in
their profiles
A fold profile, or simply profile, is the form of a fold surface as seen
on a plane normal to the hinge line.
In the profile of a fold, the crest is the highest point and trough is
the lowest point; in three dimensions, these correspond to the crest
line and the trough line, respectively.
The flat or curved surfaces on either side of a fold are called limbs.
The point on a limb where the curvature reverses is the inflection
point.
PARTS OF A FOLD
The line on the folded surface that separates these curvatures is
called the inflection line.
Hinge zone is commonly used for the part of the fold located near
the hinge.
The surface formed by joining the hinge lines of the different folded
layers is called the axial plane or axial surface.
PARTS OF A FOLD