INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY

MR. NAKUL P . KATHAR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
 Introduction

Cell Structure and Function

 LECTURE OBJECTIVES
Know what biochemistry is and its principle.

Know the components of a cell and its major types of bio-

molecules.

Understand how the role of cell organisation and different types of

chemical reactions involved in maintaining high degree of internal
order.
 WHAT IS BIOCHEMISTRY
• Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the study of biological
processes at the cellular and molecular level.
• It emerged as a distinct discipline around the beginning of the 20th century
when scientists combined chemistry, physiology and biology to investigate
the chemistry of living systems by:
A. Studying the structure and behavior of the complex molecules found in
biological material and
B. The ways these molecules interact to form cells, tissues and whole
organism.
 PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY

• Cells (basic structural units of living organisms) are highly organized and
constant source of energy is required to maintain the ordered state.
• Living processes contains thousands of chemical Reactions.(RXNs) Precise
regulation and integration of these RXNs are required to maintain life
• Certain important RXNs E.G. Glycolysis is found in almost all organisms.
• All organisms use the same type of molecules: CHO, proteins, lipids & nucleic
acids.
• Instructions for growth, reproduction and developments for each organism is
encoded in their DNA
 CELLS

• Basic Building Blocks Of Life

• Smallest Living Unit Of An Organism
• Grow, Reproduce, Use Energy, Adapt, Respond To Their
Environment
• Many Cannot Be Seen With The Naked Eye
• A Cell May Be An Entire Organism Or It May Be One Of
Billions Of Cells That Make Up The Organism
• Basis Types Of Cells
 CELLS MAY BE PROKARYOTIC OR EUKARYOTIC

• Prokaryotes include bacteria & lack a nucleus or membrane-bound

structures called organelles
• Eukaryotes include most other cells & have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles (plants, fungi, & animals)
 Prokaryotes
Nucleoid region contains the DNA
•Cell membrane & cell wall
• Contain ribosomes (no membrane)
to make proteins in their cytoplasm

Contain 3 basic cell structures:

• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with organelles
TWO MAIN TYPES OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 Characteristic Bio-membranes and Organelles
Plasma Membrane
A lipid/protein/carbohydrate complex, providing a barrier and containing transport and
signaling systems.

Nucleus
Double membrane surrounding the chromosomes and the nucleolus. Pores allow
specific communication with the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is a site for synthesis of
RNA making up the ribosome
Mitochondrion
Surrounded by a double membrane with a series of folds
called cristae. Functions in energy production through metabolism. Contains its own
DNA, and is believed to have originated as a captured bacterium.
Chloroplasts (plastids)
Surrounded by a double membrane, containing stacked thylakoid membranes.
Responsible for photosynthesis, the trapping of light energy for the synthesis of
sugars. Contains DNA, and like mitochondria is believed to have originated as a
captured bacterium.
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the cell. Covered
with ribosomes (causing the "rough" appearance) which are in the process of
synthesizing proteins for secretion or localization in membranes.
Ribosomes
Protein and RNA complex responsible for protein synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the cell. A site for
synthesis and metabolism of lipids. Also contains enzymes for detoxifying chemicals
including drugs and pesticides.
Golgi apparatus
A series of stacked membranes. Vesicles (small membrane surrounded bags) carry
materials from the RER to the Golgi apparatus. Vesicles move between the stacks
while the proteins are "processed" to a mature form. Vesicles then carry newly formed
membrane and secreted proteins to their final destinations including secretion or
membrane localization.
Lysosymes
A membrane bound organelle that is responsible for degrading proteins and membranes in
the cell, and also helps degrade materials ingested by the cell.
Vacuoles
Membrane surrounded "bags" that contain water and storage materials in plants.

Peroxisomes or Microbodies
Produce and degrade hydrogen peroxide, a toxic compound that can be produced
during metabolism.
Cell wall
Plants have a rigid cell wall in addition to their cell membranes

Cytoplasm
Enclosed by the plasma membrane, liquid portion called cytosol and it houses
the membranous organelles.

Cytoskeleton
Arrays of protein filaments in the cytosol. Gives the cell its shape and provides
basis for movement.
E.g. microtubules and microfilaments.
 BIO-MOLECULES

•Just like cells are building blocks of tissues likewise molecules are building blocks of
cells.
•Animal and plant cells contain approximately 10, 000 kinds of molecules (bio-
molecules)
•Water constitutes 50-95% of cells content by weight.
•Ions like NA+, K+ and CA+ May account for another 1%
•Almost all other kinds of bio-molecules are organic (C, H, N, O, P, S)
•Infinite variety of molecules contain C.
• Most bio-molecules considered to be derived from hydrocarbons.
•The chemical properties of organic bio-molecules are determined by their functional
groups. Most bio-molecules have more than one.
 MAJOR CLASSES OF SMALL BIO-MOLECULES

•Building blocks of proteins.

1. Amino acids:
•20 commonly occurring.

•Contains amino group and carboxyl group function groups

(behavioral properties)

•R Group (side chains) determines the chemical properties of each

amino acids.

•Also determines how the protein folds and its biological function.

•Individual amino acids in protein connected by peptide bond.

• Functions as transport proteins, structural proteins, enzymes,

antibodies, cell receptors.
 SUGARS
• Carbohydrates most abundant organic molecule found in nature.
• Initially synthesized in plants from a complex series of reactions involving photosynthesis.
• Basic unit is monosaccharides.
• Monosaccharides can form larger molecules eg. Glycogen, plant starch or cellulose.
Functions
• Store energy in the form of starch (photosynthesis in plants) or glycogen (in animals and
humans).
• Provide energy through metabolism pathways and cycles.
• Supply carbon for synthesis of other compounds.
• Form structural components in cells and tissues.
• Intercellular communications
 FATTY ACIDS
• Are monocarboxylic acid contains even number C atoms
• Two types: saturated (c-c sb) and unsaturated (c-c db)
• Fatty acids are components of several lipid molecules.
E,g. of lipids are triacylglycerol, streiods (cholestrol, sex hormones), fat soluble
vitamins.
Functions
• Storage of energy in the form of fat
• Membrane structures
• Insulation (thermal blanket)
• Synthesis of hormones
 BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS

Metabolism: total sum of the chemical reaction happening in a living organism (highly
coordinated and purposeful activity)
Anabolism- energy requiring biosynthetic pathways
Catabolism- degradation of fuel molecules and the production of energy for cellular
function
All reactions are catalyzed by enzymes
The primary functions of metabolism are:
a. Acquisition & utilization of energy
b. Synthesis of molecules needed for cell structure and
Functioning (i.e. Proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, & CHO
C. Removal of waste products
Even though thousands of RXNs sound very large And complex in a tiny cell:
• The types of RXNs are small
• Mechanisms o biochemical RXNs are simple
• Reactions of central importance (for energy production & synthesis and degradation of major
cell components) are relatively few in number
 Frequent Reaction Encountered In Biochemical Processes

1. Nucleophilic substitution
• One atom of group substituted for another
2. Elimination reactions
• Double bond is formed when atoms in a molecule is removed
3. Addition reactions:
• Two molecules combine to form a single product.
• A. Hydration reactions
• Water added to alkene > alcohol (common addition RXN)
4. Isomerization reactions.

• Involve intramolecular shift of atoms or groups

5. Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions
• Occur when there is a transfer of E- from a donor to an electron acceptor
6. Hydrolysis reactions
• Cleavage of double bond by water.
 ENERGY FOR CELLS

• Living cells are inherently unstable.

• Constant flow of energy prevents them from becoming disorganized.
• Cells obtains energy mainly by the oxidation of bio-molecules (e- transferred
from 1 molecule to another and in doing so they lose energy)
• This energy captured by cells & used to maintain highly organized cellular
structure and functions
 HOW DO COMPLEX STRUCTURE OF CELLS MAINTAIN HIGH INTERNAL ORDER?

1. Synthesis of bio-molecules

2. Transport across membranes

- Cell membranes regulate the passage of ions and molecules from one compartment to
another.

3. Cell movement
- Organized movement- most obvious characteristics of living cells. The intricate and
coordinated activities required to sustain life require the movement of cell components.

4. Waste removal
- Animal cells convert food molecules into CO2, H20 & NH3. If these not disposed properly
can be toxic.