Matrices:

An m×n matrix is of the form

 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22  a2 n 
A [a jk ]  21
    
 
 am1 am 2  amn 

In the notation m×n, m denotes the number of row and n

denotes the number of columns.
 If n = m, we call A an n×n square matrix.
 In square matrix, a diagonal containing the entries
a11 , a22 ,  , ann is called the main diagonal of A.
 An 1×n matrix is called the row vector and a m×1 matrix is
called the column vector.
4.1
A square matrix is of the form
 a11 a12  a1n  1 3 4 5
a a22  a2 n  7 2 3 0
A  21
For instance, 
     4 6 3 2
   
 an1 an 2  ann 
9 8 4 7
A row vector is of the form
a a11 a12  a1n  For instance, 1 2 6 3
A column vector is of the form
 a11   3
a   4
b  21  For instance,  
   2
   
 an1   0
4.2
 The sum of two matrices A [a jk ] and of the same
size is written A + B and has the entries obtained
by adding the corresponding entries of A and B.
Matrices of different sizes cannot be added.
1 3 4 5  2 1 2 2  1 4 6 7
7 2 3 0  2 1 0 2 9 1 3 2
    
4 6 3 2  2 3 4 1 6 3 7 3
     
9 8 4 7  7 2 1 2 2 6 5 9

 2 1 2 2
1 3 0  2
2 1 0 2
 1 4   ?!...
 2 3 4 1
 2 0 6  
 7 2 1 2
4.3
Scalar Multiplication (Multiplication by a Number):
The product of any m⨉n matrix A [a jk ] and any scalar
c (number c) is written cA and is the m ⨉n matrix
cA [ca jk ]

obtained by multiplying each entry of A by c.

1 3 4 5 2 6 8 10
7 2 3 0 14 4 6 0 
2   
4 6 3 2  8 12 6 4
   
9 8 4 7 18 16 8 14

 1 3 0 1  3 0 
 1  2 1 4    2  1  4
 2 0 6   2 0  6

4.4
Transposition of Matrices
The transpose of an m⨉n matrixA [a jk ] is the n⨉m matrix AT
(read A transpose) that has the first row of A as its first
column, the second row of A as its second column, and so on. Thus
AT [akjof] A is
the transpose written out
 a11 a21  am1 
a a22  am 2 
AT  12
    
 
 a1n a2 n  amn 
As a special case, transposition converts row vectors to column
vectors and conversely.
 5 4
 5  8 1
A   AT   8 1 
 4 1 0   1 0

4.5
Triangular Matrices:
Upper triangular matrices are square matrices that can have non-
zero entries only on and above the main diagonal, whereas any entry
below the diagonal must be zero.
Similarly, lower triangular matrices can have nonzero entries only
on and below the main diagonal. Any entry on the main diagonal of a
triangular matrix may be zero or not.

4.6
 Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices:

Symmetric: Symmetric matrices are square matrices whose transpose

equals the matrix itself.
AT  A (Thus akj a jk )

Skew-Symmetric: Skew-symmetric matrices are square matrices

whose transpose equals minus the matrix itself.
AT  A (Thus akj  a jk . Hence a jj 0)

 2 12 20

A  12 1 21  is symmetric matrix
 20 21 4  0 1 2
A   1 0  2 is skew-symmetric matrix
  2 2 0 
4.7
Elementary Row Operations for Matrices:
 Interchange of two rows
 Addition of a constant multiple of one row to another row
 Multiplication of a row by a nonzero constant c

A matrix A is said to be row-equivalent to a matrix B, if B

can be obtained from A by elementary row operations.

4.8
Row Echelon Form:

4.9
Rank of a Matrix:

The rank of a matrix A is the maximum number of linearly

independent row vectors of A. It is denoted by rank A.

 Row-equivalent matrices have the same rank.

 The rank r of a matrix A equals the maximum number of linearly
independent column vectors of A.
 Hence A and its transpose have the same rank.
 Then rank r of the n×m matrix will satisfy r ≤ min { n, m}.

4.10
Inverse of the matrix
The inverse of an n⨉n matrix
1
A [ a ]
jk is denoted by A and is
an n⨉n matrix such that
1 1
AA  A A I where I is the unit matrix.

If A has an inverse, then A is called a non-singular (Invertible)

matrix. If A has no inverse, then A is called a singular matrix.

If A has an inverse, the inverse is unique.

1
The inverse A of an n×n matrix A exists if and only if ,
rank A = n thus if and only ifdet A 0 . Hence A is non-
singular if rank A = n and is singular if rank A < n.

4.11
Linear system:
A linear system of m equations in n unknowns is a set of
equations of the form

The system is called linear because each variable appears in

the first power only, just as in the equation of a straight line.
The terms a11 , a12 ,  , amn are given numbers, called the
coefficients of the system. b1 , b2 ,  , bm on the right are also given
numbers.
If all the b j are zero, then system is called a homogeneous
system. If at least one b j is not zero, then system is called a non-
homogeneous system.
4.12
 To solve system of equations we are having various methods .

 One of the familiar method is converting the equation into

matrix form then solving by using Gauss-elimination or
Gauss-Jordon method.

4.13
Matrix Form of the Linear System:

4.14
Elementary Row Operations for Matrices:
 Interchange of two rows
 Addition of a constant multiple of one row to another row

⇕
 Multiplication of a row by a nonzero constant c

Elementary Operations for Equations:

 Interchange of two equations
 Addition of a constant multiple of one equation to another
equation
 Multiplication of an equation by a nonzero constant c

Row-equivalent linear systems have the same set of

solutions. 4.15
Solutions of Linear Systems: Existence & Uniqueness
 Existence. A linear system of m equations in n unknowns

is consistent, that is, has solutions, if and only if the coefficient

~
A
matrix A and the augmented matrix have the same rank.
Here,
 a11 a12  a1n   a11 a12  a1n b1 
a  
a22  a2 n  ~  a21 a22  a2 n b2 
A  21 and A 
         
   
 am1 am 2  amn   am1 am 2  amn bm 
4.16
 Uniqueness. The system (1) has precisely one solution if and
~
only if this common rank r of A and A
equals n.
 Infinitely many solutions. If this common rank r is less than n,
the system (1) has infinitely many solutions. All of these
solutions are obtained by determining r suitable unknowns
(whose sub-matrix of coefficients must have rank r) in terms of
the remaining n - r unknowns, to which arbitrary values can be
assigned.
 Gauss elimination: If solutions exist, they can all be obtained
by the Gauss elimination. (This method will automatically
reveal whether or not solutions exist)
4.17
 If x and y are solution vectors of a homogeneous linear
system, then a x + b y with any scalars a and b is a solution vector
of the homogeneous linear system.
(This does not hold for Non-homogeneous systems. Also, the
term solution space is used for homogeneous systems only.)

 If a non-homogeneous linear system is consistent, then all of

its solutions are obtained as
z=x+y
where x is any (fixed) solution of non-homogeneous linear system
and y runs through all the solutions of the corresponding
homogeneous system.

4.18
Consider the following system of equations

2 x  3 y 5 2 x  3 y 5 2 x  3 y 5
4 x  y 3 4 x  6 y 3 4 x  6 y 10

2 x  3 y  4 z 7 2 x  3 y  4 z 7
4 x  6 y  3 z 7 4 x  6 y  3 z 7
5 x  y  3z 7 6 x  9 y  z 14

4.19