EXCEL GLOBAL SCHOOL

PHYSICS Chapter 2– Thermal Physics

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.1.1 States of matter
Core • State the distinguishing
properties of solids, liquids and gases

2.1.2 Molecular model Supplement • Relate the properties of

Core • Describe qualitatively the solids, liquids and gases to the forces
molecular structure of solids, liquids and and distances between molecules and to
gases in terms of the arrangement, the motion of the molecules
separation and motion of the molecules
• Interpret the temperature of a gas in
terms of the motion of its molecules
• Describe qualitatively the pressure of Explain pressure in terms of the change
a gas in terms of the motion of its of momentum of the particles striking
molecules the walls creating a force • Show an
• Show an understanding of the random appreciation that massive particles may
motion of particles in a suspension as be moved by light, fast- moving
evidence for the kinetic molecular molecules
model of matter • Describe this motion
(sometimes known as Brownian motion)
in terms of random molecular
bombardment
 What’s the difference?

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape

Can you
pour?
Can you
stir?
Can you
squash?
 What’s the difference?

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape Fixed Can be No shape

changed
Can you No Yes Yes?
pour?
Can you No Yes Yes?
stir?
Can you No Yes? Yes
squash?
Changes of State

Gas

Liquid

Solid
 Changes of State

Gas

Liquid

melting {
Solid
 Changes of State

Gas
Boiling
(evaporating)
{ Liquid

melting {
Solid
 Changes of State

Gas
Boiling
(evaporating)
{ Liquid
} condensing

melting {
Solid
 Changes of State

Gas
Boiling
(evaporating)
{ Liquid
} condensing

melting { } freezing

Solid
 Changes of State

Gas

Liquid

Particles are fixed in place and cannot move

Solid
 Changes of State

Gas

Particles are free to move within a

Liquid container

Particles are fixed in place and cannot move

Solid
 Changes of State

Particles are free to move about

Gas

Particles are free to move within a

Liquid container

Particles are fixed in place and cannot move

Solid
 SOLIDS
• Strong forces of
attraction
• held in fixed position
• lattice arrangement
• don’t move, so have
definite shape and volume
• vibrate
 SOLIDS

• as they become hotter,

the particles vibrate more.
• so they expand
• can’t be compressed
• generally very dense
 SOLIDS

• when heated, molecules

gain energy.
• they vibrate more and
more
• strong forces are
overcome, molecules start
to move = MELTED
 LIQUIDS
• Some attraction between
molecules.
• free to move
• no definite shape, but
take shape of container
• molecules in constantly
random motion
 LIQUIDS

• when heated, they

move faster and expand
• can’t be compressed
• quite dense
 LIQUIDS

• heat makes the

molecules move faster as
they gain energy.
• fast moving molecules
at the surface will
overcome forces of
attraction and escape =
EVAPORATION
 GASES
• no force of attraction
• free to move, travel in
straight lines
• sometimes collide
• no definite shape or
volume, expand to fill
space
 GASES

• exert pressure on wall of

container
• constantly moving
randomly
• move faster when
heated
• can be compressed
• very low densities
 GASES

• when heated enough,

molecules have enough
speed and energy to
overcome forces and
escape each other.
• molecules break away in
big bubbles of gas =
BOILING
 Heating
Temperature

Gas

Boiling point

Liquid

Melting point

Solid

Time
 Cooling

Gas
Temperature

Condensing
Liquid

Freezing
Solid

Time
 So what
evidence is
there for
moving
particles?
 So what
evidence is
there for
moving
particles?

Brownia
n
motion!
BROWNIAN motion

microscop
e

Glass
cover

Glass cell

lamp smoke
 BROWNIAN motion

Microscope view

microscop
e

Glass
cover
Zig-zag paths of
smoke particles
Glass cell

lamp smoke
 BROWNIAN motion

Explanation
Viewed through a microscope,
smoke can be seen to be made
up of millions of tiny bits or
particles. The bits of smoke
glint in the light from the lamp.
 BROWNIAN motion

Explanation
Viewed through a microscope,
smoke can be seen to be made
up of millions of tiny bits or
particles. The bits of smoke
glint in the light from the lamp.

As they drift through the air

they are seen to wobble in zig-
zag paths. This was first
noticed in 1827 by Robert
Brown. The effect is called
Brownian motion.
 BROWNIAN motion

Explanation
Viewed through a microscope,
smoke can be seen to be made
up of millions of tiny bits or
particles. The bits of smoke
glint in the light from the lamp.

Kinetic theory can explain

As they drift through the air Brownian motion – the bits of
they are seen to wobble in zig- smoke, just large enough to be
zag paths. This was first seen, have so little mass that
noticed in 1827 by Robert they are ‘jostled’ about by
Brown. The effect is called thousands of surrounding
Brownian motion. gas particles that bump into
them at random.
 Internal
energy
Particles in solids,
liquids and gases have
kinetic energy
(movement) and stored
potential energy. Gases
have the most PE.
 Internal
energy
Particles in solids,
liquids and gases have The total KE and PE of all
atoms and molecules in
kinetic energy
a material is called the
(movement) and stored
internal energy. The
potential energy. Gases hotter a material, the
have the most PE. faster the particles
move, and the more
internal energy it has.
 Internal
energy
Particles in solids,
liquids and gases have The total KE and PE of all
atoms and molecules in
kinetic energy
a material is called the
(movement) and stored
internal energy. The
potential energy. Gases hotter a material, the
have the most PE. faster the particles
move, and the more
internal energy it has.

If a hot material is in
contact with a cold
material, energy is
transferred = HEAT. The
hot material loses
internal energy, the
cold material gains
internal energy.
 Internal
energy
Particles in solids,
liquids and gases have The total KE and PE of all
atoms and molecules in
kinetic energy
a material is called the
(movement) and stored
internal energy. The
potential energy. Gases hotter a material, the
have the most PE. faster the particles
move, and the more
internal energy it has.

The term thermal energy is

often used for both internal If a hot material is in
contact with a cold
energy and heat. material, energy is
transferred = HEAT. The
hot material loses
internal energy, the
cold material gains
internal energy.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.1.1 States of matter
Core • State the distinguishing
properties of solids, liquids and gases

2.1.2 Molecular model Supplement • Relate the properties of

Core • Describe qualitatively the solids, liquids and gases to the forces
molecular structure of solids, liquids and and distances between molecules and to
gases in terms of the arrangement, the motion of the molecules
separation and motion of the molecules
• Interpret the temperature of a gas in
terms of the motion of its molecules
• Describe qualitatively the pressure of Explain pressure in terms of the change
a gas in terms of the motion of its of momentum of the particles striking
molecules the walls creating a force • Show an
• Show an understanding of the random appreciation that massive particles may
motion of particles in a suspension as be moved by light, fast- moving
evidence for the kinetic molecular molecules
model of matter • Describe this motion
(sometimes known as Brownian motion)
in terms of random molecular
bombardment
Gases and
Pressure
Kinetic theory tells us that
gases consist of very small
particles that are constantly
moving in completely random
directions.
Gases and
Pressure
Kinetic theory tells us that
gases consist of very small
particles that are constantly
moving in completely random
directions.
The particles have mass, so
whenever they collide with
something they exert a force on
it. In sealed containers, gas
particles will smash against the
walls of the container – creating
an outward pressure.
Gases and
Pressure
Kinetic theory tells us that
gases consist of very small
particles that are constantly
moving in completely random
directions.
The particles have mass, so
whenever they collide with
something they exert a force on
it. In sealed containers, gas
particles will smash against the
walls of the container – creating
an outward pressure.

If the same amount of gas is put

into a bigger container, there will
be fewer collisions with the
walls of the container, so the
pressure will decrease.
 Gases and
Pressure
Kinetic theory tells us that
gases consist of very small
particles that are constantly
moving in completely random
directions.
The particles have mass, so
whenever they collide with
something they exert a force on
it. In sealed containers, gas
particles will smash against the
walls of the container – creating
an outward pressure.

If the same amount of gas is put

If a smaller container is used
into a bigger container, there will
then there will be more
be fewer collisions with the
collisions with the walls as the
walls of the container, so the
particles are being squashed
pressure will decrease.
closer together. The pressure
will increase.
 Gases and
Pressure
The volume of a gas is
inversely proportional
to its pressure (at a
constant
temperature).
 Gases and
Pressure
The volume of a gas is
inversely proportional
to its pressure (at a
constant
temperature).

As the volume
gets bigger,
the gas
pressure goes
down (and vice
versa).
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2.1.3 Evaporation Supplement • Demonstrate an

Core • Describe evaporation in terms of understanding of how temperature,
the escape of more-energetic molecules surface area and draught over a surface
from the surface of a liquid • Relate influence evaporation • Explain the
evaporation to the consequent cooling cooling of a body in contact with an
of the liquid evaporating liquid

2.1.4 Pressure changes

Core • Describe qualitatively, in terms
of molecules, the effect on the pressure Supplement • Recall and use the
of a gas of: – a change of temperature equation pV = constant for a fixed mass
at constant volume – a change of of gas at constant temperature
volume at constant temperature
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2.1.3 Evaporation Supplement • Demonstrate an

Core • Describe evaporation in terms of understanding of how temperature,
the escape of more-energetic molecules surface area and draught over a surface
from the surface of a liquid • Relate influence evaporation • Explain the
evaporation to the consequent cooling cooling of a body in contact with an
of the liquid evaporating liquid

2.1.4 Pressure changes

Core • Describe qualitatively, in terms
of molecules, the effect on the pressure Supplement • Recall and use the
of a gas of: – a change of temperature equation pV = constant for a fixed mass
at constant volume – a change of of gas at constant temperature
volume at constant temperature
 Evaporation
Previously:
………

What do we know
so far about the
properties of liquids
and evaporation?
 Evaporation
Previously:
………

What do we know
so far about the
properties of liquids
and evaporation?
 Evaporation
Previously:
………

What do we know
so far about the
properties of liquids
and evaporation?
 Evaporation
Previously:
………

What do we know
so far about the
properties of liquids
and evaporation?
Evaporation
When a liquid evaporates, faster
particles escape from its surface to
form a gas. However, unless the gas
is removed, some of the particles will
return to the liquid.

GAS

LIQUID
 Evaporation
How can we
increase the
rate of
evaporation
?

1. Increase the
temperature.
Wet clothes will dry faster on
a hot day because more of the
water molecules have
sufficient energy to escape
from the surface of the liquid.

HEAT
Evaporation
2. Increase the surface
How can we area.
increase the If the surface area is
rate of increased (eg. pour a hot drink
evaporation from a cup into the saucer)
? then more of the molecules
are closer to the surface of the
liquid..
 Evaporation
How can we
increase the H2O
H2O
rate of H2O
H2O H2O
evaporation H2O
?

3. Reduce the humidity.

Air can be very humid,
which means that it will have a
high water vapour content. In
humid air, less water will
evaporate, whereas in air with
low humidity the rate of
evaporation will be faster.
Evaporation
4. Blow air across the
surface
How can we Wet clothes will dry faster
increase the on a windy day because the
rate of moving air carries escaping
evaporation water molecules away before
? many of them can return to
the liquid.
 Evaporation
So what’s the
difference between
evaporation and
boiling?

Boiling is a very rapid form

of evaporation

Vapour bubbles form in the

liquid and as they rise and
burst at the surface they
release large amounts of
vapour.
http://www.fphoto.com/
 Evaporation and
Cooling
If your hands are H2O
wet then water
will start to
evaporate from
the surface.
H2O

H2O
 Evaporation and
Cooling
If your hands are H2O
wet then water
will start to
evaporate from
the surface.
H2O

H2O

Your skin feels

cooler as the
evaporating
water takes
thermal energy
away.
 Evaporation and
Cooling
If your hands are H2O
wet then water
Kinetic theory:
will start to
- Faster
evaporate from
particles are
the surface.
escaping, so
H2O
the ones left
behind are
H2O
slower and so
Your skin feels have less
cooler as the energy – liquid
evaporating temperature is
water takes therefore less
thermal energy than before.
away.
 Evaporation and
Cooling
The cooling effect of evaporation is put to good use in a
refrigerator
 Evaporation and
Cooling
The cooling effect of evaporation is put to good use in a
refrigerator
1. A liquid called a refrigerant
passes through pipes in the
freezer compartment. As it
evaporates it takes thermal
energy from the food and air.

http://www.jland.org/swat/e5/refrig.html
 Evaporation and
Cooling
The cooling effect of evaporation is put to good use in a
refrigerator
1. A liquid called a refrigerant
passes through pipes in the
freezer compartment. As it
evaporates it takes thermal
energy from the food and air.

2. The pump draws the vapour

away, compresses it and turns it
back into a liquid. This releases
thermal energy, so the liquid
heats up.

http://www.jland.org/swat/e5/refrig.html
 Evaporation and
Cooling
The cooling effect of evaporation is put to good use in a
refrigerator
1. A liquid called a refrigerant
passes through pipes in the
freezer compartment. As it
evaporates it takes thermal
energy from the food and air.

2. The pump draws the vapour

away, compresses it and turns it
back into a liquid. This releases
thermal energy, so the liquid
heats up.
3. The hot liquid is cooled as it
passes through the condenser
pipes at the back. The thermal
energy is then taken away by the
air.
http://www.jland.org/swat/e5/refrig.html
 Evaporation and
Cooling
The cooling effect of evaporation is put to good use in a
refrigerator
1. A liquid called a refrigerant
passes through pipes in the
freezer compartment. As it
evaporates it takes thermal
energy from the food and air.

2. The pump draws the vapour

away, compresses it and turns it
back into a liquid. This releases
thermal energy, so the liquid
heats up.
3. The hot liquid is cooled as it
passes through the condenser
pipes at the back. The thermal
energy is then taken away by the
air.
Overall, the thermal energy is transferred
from the food inside the fridge to the air
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outside.
 Evaporation and
Cooling
The cooling effect of evaporation is put to good use to help us cool
down.

When our body temperature starts

to increase more than 0.5oC above
normal we start to sweat – tiny
pores in our skin release sweat
(mostly water). The liquid
evaporates from the skin surface,
taking thermal energy with it. This
cools us down.

Heat loss through sweating is more

difficult when we are in a humid
environment.
 Changes of State

Gas
Boiling
(evaporating)
{ Liquid
} condensing

melting { } freezing

Solid
 Condensation

• Gas changing back into a

liquid.
• Cold air can hold less water
vapour than warm air, so
some water vapour may
condense if humid air is
suddenly cooled.
• These tiny water droplets in
the air may be seen as fog,
mist or clouds.
• We might also see
condensation on a mirror in
a bathroom, or other window
surface.
Pressure changes
 Gases and
Pressure
Kinetic theory tells us that
gases consist of very small
particles that are constantly
moving in completely random
directions.
The particles have mass, so
whenever they collide with
something they exert a force on
it. In sealed containers, gas
particles will smash against the
walls of the container – creating
an outward pressure.

If the same amount of gas is put

If a smaller container is used
into a bigger container, there will
then there will be more
be fewer collisions with the
collisions with the walls as the
walls of the container, so the
particles are being squashed
pressure will decrease.
closer together. The pressure
will increase.
Pressure changes – and
temperature
(at a constant volume)
 Pressure changes – and
temperature
(at a constant volume)
Increasing the temperature of a gas increases
the pressure.
If a gas is heated, the particles
move faster and have more
kinetic energy. As the KE
increases, the particles hit the
container walls harder and
more often, resulting in more
pressure.
 Pressure changes – and
temperature
(at a constant volume)
Increasing the temperature of a gas increases
the pressure.
If a gas is heated, the particles
move faster and have more
kinetic energy. As the KE
increases, the particles hit the
container walls harder and
more often, resulting in more
pressure.
Pressure is directly proportional
to absolute temperature (in K).
Doubling the temperature
produces a doubling in
pressure.
 Pressure changes – and
temperature
(at a constant volume)
Increasing the temperature of a gas increases
the pressure.
In a sealed container (constant If a gas is heated, the particles
volume: move faster and have more
kinetic energy. As the KE
pressure = constant increases, the particles hit the
temperature container walls harder and
more often, resulting in more
P = constant pressure.
T Pressure is directly proportional
to absolute temperature (in K).
P1 = P2 Doubling the temperature
produces a doubling in
T1 T2
pressure.
 Pressure changes – and
temperature
(at a constant volume)
Increasing the temperature of a gas increases
the pressure.
Eg. A sealed container has a If a gas is heated, the particles
volume of 25 litres. The gas inside move faster and have more
is at a pressure of 1 bar (1 atm) kinetic energy. As the KE
and a temperature of 300K. What
increases, the particles hit the
will the pressure be if the
temperature is increased to 325K?
container walls harder and
more often, resulting in more
Answer: P1 = P2 pressure.
Pressure is directly proportional
T1 T2
to absolute temperature (in K).
Doubling the temperature
1 / 300 = P2 / 325
produces a doubling in
pressure.
P2 = 325 / 300 = 1.08
bar
Pressure changes – and volume
(at a constant temperature)
 Pressure changes – and volume
(at a constant temperature)
Decreasing the volume of a gas increases the
pressure.

The particles have mass, so

whenever they collide with
something they exert a force
on it. In sealed containers,
gas particles will smash against
the walls of the container –
creating an outward
pressure.
 Pressure changes – and volume
(at a constant temperature)
Decreasing the volume of a gas increases the
pressure.
So long as the temperature is kept
constant, if the container is made
bigger (with the same amount of gas)
the pressure will decrease as there are
fewer collisions between the particles
and the walls of the container (and vice
versa).
The particles have mass, so
whenever they collide with
something they exert a force
on it. In sealed containers,
gas particles will smash against
the walls of the container –
creating an outward
pressure.
 Pressure changes – and volume
(at a constant temperature)
Decreasing the volume of a gas increases the
pressure.
So long as the temperature is kept
constant, if the container is made
bigger (with the same amount of gas)
the pressure will decrease as there are
fewer collisions between the particles
and the walls of the container (and vice
versa).
Volume is inversely
The particles have mass, so
whenever they collide with proportional to pressure.
something they exert a force Halving the volume produces
on it. In sealed containers,
gas particles will smash against a doubling in pressure.
the walls of the container –
creating an outward
pressure.
 Pressure changes – and volume
(at a constant temperature)
Decreasing the volume of a gas increases the
pressure.
At constant temperature, So long as the temperature is
kept constant, if the container
pressure x volume = is made bigger (with the same
constant amount of gas) the pressure
will decrease as there are
P x V = constant fewer collisions between the
particles and the walls of the
P 1 x V1 = P 2 x V2 container (and vice versa).
Volume is inversely
proportional to pressure.
Halving the volume produces
a doubling in pressure.
 Pressure changes – and volume
(at a constant temperature)
Decreasing the volume of a gas increases the
pressure.
Eg. A gas a constant temperature So long as the temperature is
in a 100 ml container has a kept constant, if the container
pressure of 1.2 atmosphere (atm). is made bigger (with the same
What is the new pressure if the
amount of gas) the pressure
container volume is reduced to
60ml?
will decrease as there are
fewer collisions between the
Answer: P 1 x V 1 = P2 x V 2 particles and the walls of the
container (and vice versa).
1.2 x 100 = P2 x 60 Volume is inversely
proportional to pressure.
1.2 x 100 = P2 = Halving the volume produces
2.0atm a doubling in pressure.
60
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids,

liquids and gases
Core • Describe qualitatively the Supplement • Explain, in terms of the
thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and motion and arrangement of molecules,
gases at constant pressure • Identify the relative order of the magnitude of
and explain some of the everyday the expansion of solids, liquids and
applications and consequences of gases
thermal expansion

2.2.2 Measurement of temperature

Core • Appreciate how a physical Supplement • Demonstrate
property that varies with temperature understanding of sensitivity, range and
may be used for the measurement of linearity • Describe the structure of a
temperature, and state examples of thermocouple and show understanding
such properties • Recognise the need of its use as a thermometer for
for and identify fixed points measuring high temperatures and those
• Describe and explain the structure that vary rapidly • Describe and explain
and action of liquid-in-glass how the structure of a liquid-in-glass
thermometers thermometer relates to its sensitivity,
range and linearity
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids,

liquids and gases
Core • Describe qualitatively the Supplement • Explain, in terms of the
thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and motion and arrangement of molecules,
gases at constant pressure • Identify the relative order of the magnitude of
and explain some of the everyday the expansion of solids, liquids and
applications and consequences of gases
thermal expansion

2.2.2 Measurement of temperature

Core • Appreciate how a physical Supplement • Demonstrate
property that varies with temperature understanding of sensitivity, range and
may be used for the measurement of linearity • Describe the structure of a
temperature, and state examples of thermocouple and show understanding
such properties • Recognise the need of its use as a thermometer for
for and identify fixed points measuring high temperatures and those
• Describe and explain the structure that vary rapidly • Describe and explain
and action of liquid-in-glass how the structure of a liquid-in-glass
thermometers thermometer relates to its sensitivity,
range and linearity
Temperature and
Heat
Kinetic theory – particles are constantly
moving and have kinetic energy. The
higher the temperature, the faster they
move, so the more kinetic energy they
contain.
 Temperature and
Heat
Kinetic theory – particles are constantly
moving and have kinetic energy. The
higher the temperature, the faster they
move, so the more kinetic energy they
contain.

Higher
temperatur
Energy will flow from a hotter object to a
e colder one. Particles in the hot object will
lose kinetic energy, whereas particles in
Energy
the cold object will gain energy.

Lower
temperatur
e
 Temperature and
Heat
Kinetic theory – particles are constantly
moving and have kinetic energy. The
higher the temperature, the faster they
move, so the more kinetic energy they
contain.

Higher
temperatur
Energy will flow from a hotter object to a
e colder one. Particles in the hot object will
lose kinetic energy, whereas particles in
Energy
the cold object will gain energy.

Lower
temperatur Energy will continue to flow until both
e
objects reach the same temperature.
Objects at the same temperature will
have the same average kinetic energy
per particle.
Temperature and
Heat

Are temperature and

heat the same?
Temperature and
Heat

Are temperature and

heat the same?

No, because a spoonful

of boiling water
(100oC) will have less
thermal (heat) energy
….
Temperature and
Heat

Are temperature and

heat the same?

No, because a spoonful

of boiling water
(100oC) will have less
thermal (heat) energy
….

… than a beaker of
boiling water (at the
same temperature).
 Thermal
Expansion
 Thermal
Expansion

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When heated, solids (and liquids and

gases) gain thermal energy. The particles
start to move about more – their
vibrations take up more space, so there is
expansion in all directions. The opposite is
true when the temperature falls – the
material will get smaller (contract).
 Thermal
Expansion
Gases
expand
Liquids
more when
expand
heated than
more when
liquids
heated than
(depending
solids.
upon P, V
and T)
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Material Coefficient of expansion

When heated, solids (and liquids and
gases) gain thermal energy. The particles Glass 8.5
start to move about more – their Concrete 12
vibrations take up more space, so there is
expansion in all directions. The opposite is Brass 19
true when the temperature falls – the Steel 11
material will get smaller (contract). Aluminium 23
 Thermal
Expansion
- observing expansion Steel bar

Cast iron peg

A strong steel bar is fixed within the apparatus frame by a

large nut at one end and a cast iron peg at the other. When
the bar is heated the cast iron peg snaps because of the
huge force in the bar. It is also possible to make another
peg break when the bar contracts on cooling by tightening
the nut when the bar expands.
 Thermal - examples
Expansion
Girders in buildings and bridges are made
with gaps at the ends.
Glass to be used in cooking has to be a low
expansion type such as Pyrex otherwise it
would shatter as it got hot.
Rivets are heated before they are put in
place to hold two metal plates together.
 Thermal - examples
Expansion
Girders in buildings and bridges are made
with gaps at the ends. High-speed
Glass to be used in cooking has to be a low planes are
expansion type such as Pyrex otherwise it warmed by air
would shatter as it got hot. friction and so
Rivets are heated before they are put in get longer.
place to hold two metal plates together.
 Thermal - examples
Expansion
Girders in buildings and bridges are made
with gaps at the ends. High-speed
Glass to be used in cooking has to be a low planes are
expansion type such as Pyrex otherwise it warmed by air
would shatter as it got hot. friction and so
Rivets are heated before they are put in get longer.
place to hold two metal plates together.

roller
s

Bridges have gaps to allow for

expansion. Rollers may be used
at one end so that movement can
take place.
 Thermal - examples
Expansion
Girders in buildings and bridges are made
with gaps at the ends. High-speed
Glass to be used in cooking has to be a low planes are
expansion type such as Pyrex otherwise it warmed by air
would shatter as it got hot. friction and so
Rivets are heated before they are put in get longer.
place to hold two metal plates together.
Suspended overhead cables are
left slack to allow for contraction
that could happen on a very cold
roller day.
s

Cold
day

Bridges have gaps to allow for

Hot day
expansion. Rollers may be used
at one end so that movement can
take place.
 Thermal -
Expansion applications
Thermomete
r
As the temperature
rises, the liquid in
the bulb expands,
and so rises up the
narrow tube which is
calibrated to fixed
points (eg. 0oC,
100oC)
Calibration
scale

Expandin
g liquid

Mercury
or alcohol
 Thermal -
Expansion applications
Thermomete Bimetallic strip
r
As the temperature
rises, the liquid in
the bulb expands,
and so rises up the http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-14/Heat%20energy/Expansion/text/Expansion_of_solids/index.html

narrow tube which is In a bimetallic strip, a low

calibrated to fixed expansion metal (eg. Invar) is
points (eg. 0oC, bonded to a high expansion
100oC) metal (eg. Brass). As the strip is
Calibration
scale heated, the brass expands more
than the invar, causing the strip
Expandin to bend.
g liquid

Mercury
or alcohol
 Thermal -
Expansion applications
Thermomete Bimetallic strip
r
As the temperature
rises, the liquid in
the bulb expands,
and so rises up the http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age11-14/Heat%20energy/Expansion/text/Expansion_of_solids/index.html

narrow tube which is In a bimetallic strip, a low

calibrated to fixed expansion metal (eg. Invar) is
points (eg. 0oC, bonded to a high expansion
100oC) metal (eg. Brass). As the strip is
Calibration
scale heated, the brass expands more
than the invar, causing the strip
Expandin to bend.
g liquid Bimetallic strips
may be used in
thermostats –
Mercury devices for
or alcohol maintaining a
steady
temperature, such
 Thermal
Expansion
… and the mystery of floating
ice!
 Thermal
Expansion
… and the mystery of floating
ice! As hot water cools, so it contracts
(gets smaller). However, as water
freezes it actually expands as ice is
formed. This expansion can be
enough to split water pipes (and
rocks).
 Thermal
Expansion
… and the mystery of floating
ice! As hot water cools, so it contracts
(gets smaller). However, as water
freezes it actually expands as ice is
formed. This expansion can be
enough to split water pipes (and
rocks).
Why does this
happen?
 Thermal
Expansion
… and the mystery of floating
ice! As hot water cools, so it contracts
(gets smaller). However, as water
freezes it actually expands as ice is
formed. This expansion can be
enough to split water pipes (and
rocks).
Why does this
happen?

In liquid water the water molecules

are close together. In ice the water
molecules link up in a very open
structure that takes up more space
than in the liquid.
 Thermal
Expansion
… and the mystery of floating
ice!
The density of ice is lower than that
of liquid water, and so ice floats on
water. The open structure
molecules start to form at about
4oC, just above the freezing point of
water.
Water therefore expands very
slightly between 4oC and 0oC.
Thermal Expansion and
gases
Thermal Expansion and
gases
So what is the
relationship between
gas pressure and
temperature?

At constant
volume!
 Thermal Expansion and
gases
Using the apparatus below, a fixed So what is the
volume of gas is heated. At each relationship between
temperature point, pressure is
gas pressure and
measured on the gauge. As the
temperature of the gas increases, so
temperature?
does the pressure. Molecules are
moving faster, so are hitting the side
of the container with greater force.

At constant
volume!

http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/pressure-temperature-
relationship-of-gas-pressure-law.html
 Thermal Expansion and
gases
Using the apparatus below, a fixed So what is the
volume of gas is heated. At each relationship between
temperature point, pressure is
gas pressure and
measured on the gauge. As the
temperature of the gas increases, so
temperature?
does the pressure. Molecules are
moving faster, so are hitting the side If a graph is plotted
of the container with greater force. of P against T, the
graph is a straight
line. If extended
backwards, it cuts
the temperature axis
at
-273oC (absolute
zero)
At constant
volume!

http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/pressure-temperature-
relationship-of-gas-pressure-law.html
 Thermal Expansion and
gases
Absolute zero ….. Brrr!

If the temperature of
a gas is reduced, the
particles have less
energy and move
more slowly.
Eventually, at a
particular
temperature, the
particles stop moving
completely. This
temperature is the
lowest possible
temperature, and is
known as absolute
zero.
 Thermal Expansion and
gases
Absolute zero ….. Brrr! Absolute zero is
-273oC. This is
also known as
zero kelvin, or
If the temperature of
0 K. To convert
a gas is reduced, the
from oC to K,
particles have less
just add 273.
energy and move
more slowly.
Eventually, at a
particular
temperature, the
particles stop moving Eg. Converting
completely. This 120oC to kelvin,
temperature is the add 273.
lowest possible
temperature, and is 273 + 120 =
known as absolute 393K
zero.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids,

liquids and gases
Core • Describe qualitatively the Supplement • Explain, in terms of the
thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and motion and arrangement of molecules,
gases at constant pressure • Identify the relative order of the magnitude of
and explain some of the everyday the expansion of solids, liquids and
applications and consequences of gases
thermal expansion

2.2.2 Measurement of temperature

Core • Appreciate how a physical Supplement • Demonstrate
property that varies with temperature understanding of sensitivity, range and
may be used for the measurement of linearity • Describe the structure of a
temperature, and state examples of thermocouple and show understanding
such properties • Recognise the need of its use as a thermometer for
for and identify fixed points measuring high temperatures and those
• Describe and explain the structure that vary rapidly • Describe and explain
and action of liquid-in-glass how the structure of a liquid-in-glass
thermometers thermometer relates to its sensitivity,
range and linearity
 Measuring temperature

Temperatures in
everyday
situations are
usually
measured in
degrees Celsius
(oC) – also
referred to
sometimes as
the ‘centigrade
scale’.
 Measuring temperature

Temperatures in
everyday
situations are
usually
measured in
degrees Celsius
(oC) – also
referred to
sometimes as
the ‘centigrade Two fixed points
scale’.
 Measuring temperature

Temperatures in
everyday
situations are
usually
measured in
degrees Celsius
(oC) – also
referred to
sometimes as
the ‘centigrade Two fixed points
scale’.
0oC, the freezing
point of pure
water.
 Measuring temperature

Temperatures in
everyday
situations are
usually
measured in
degrees Celsius
(oC) – also
referred to
sometimes as
the ‘centigrade Two fixed points
scale’.
0oC, the freezing 100oC, the boiling
point of pure point of pure
water. water.
 Measuring temperature

Temperatures in
everyday Sun’s surface 6000oC
situations are Bunsen flame 1500oC
usually
measured in Human body 37oC
degrees Celsius Freezer food -20oC
(oC) – also
referred to Absolute zero -273oC
sometimes as
the ‘centigrade Two fixed points
scale’.
0oC, the freezing 100oC, the boiling
point of pure point of pure
water. water.
 Measuring temperature

So how exactly is the

thermometer calibrated?
 Measuring temperature

So how exactly is the

thermometer calibrated?

Lower fixed point,

0oC
0 degrees Celsius is
defined as the melting
point of pure ice. Any
impurities will affect the
value obtained.

http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jkn/235L2ppt1_files/slide0002_image002.gif
 Measuring temperature

So how exactly is the

thermometer calibrated?

Lower fixed point, Upper fixed point,

0oC 100oC
0 degrees Celsius is 100 degrees Celsius is
defined as the melting defined as the boiling
point of pure ice. Any point of pure ice.
impurities will affect the Boiling must be at
value obtained. standard atmospheric
pressure.

http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jkn/235L2ppt1_files/slide0002_image002.gif http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jkn/235L2ppt1_files/slide0002_image002.gif
 Measuring temperature

So how exactly is the

thermometer calibrated?

Lower fixed point, Upper fixed point,

0oC 100oC
0 degrees Celsius is 100 degrees Celsius is
defined as the melting defined as the boiling
point of pure ice. Any point of pure ice.
impurities will affect the Boiling must be at
value obtained. standard atmospheric
pressure.
Having fixed the 0oC and 100oC the rest of the scale is
made by dividing the length into 100 equal divisions
or degrees.
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jkn/235L2ppt1_files/slide0002_image002.gif http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jkn/235L2ppt1_files/slide0002_image002.gif
 Measuring temperature

So how exactly is the If the scale is divided

thermometer calibrated? up into equal divisions
then it is known as a
linear scale.
Lower fixed point, Upper fixed point,
0oC 100oC
0 degrees Celsius is 100 degrees Celsius is
defined as the melting defined as the boiling
point of pure ice. Any point of pure ice.
impurities will affect the Boiling must be at
value obtained. standard atmospheric
pressure.
Having fixed the 0oC and 100oC the rest of the scale is
made by dividing the length into 100 equal divisions
or degrees.
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jkn/235L2ppt1_files/slide0002_image002.gif http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jkn/235L2ppt1_files/slide0002_image002.gif
Measuring temperature

Features of
liquid-in-glass
thermometers
 Measuring temperature

Most liquids expand

Features of
slightly when heated. This liquid-in-glass
property is put to use in thermometers
thermometers filled with
alcohol or mercury.
 Measuring temperature

Most liquids expand

Features of
slightly when heated. This liquid-in-glass
property is put to use in thermometers
thermometers filled with
alcohol or mercury.

Sensitivity.
At any
- The narrower the given
temperatur
tube, the more the e same
increase in
liquid inside moves, volume of
liquid
making the alcohol.

thermometer more
sensitive to changes
in temperature.
Alcohol expands
more than mercury,
so a mercury
thermometer must
have a narrower
tube than an alcohol
 Measuring temperature

Most liquids expand

Features of
slightly when heated. This liquid-in-glass
property is put to use in thermometers
thermometers filled with
alcohol or mercury.

Sensitivity. Range – mercury has a freezing point

At any
- The narrower the given of -39oC and a boiling point of 356oC.
temperatur
tube, the more the e same Alcohol freezes at -115oC, but boils at
increase in
liquid inside moves, volume of 78oC.
liquid
making the alcohol.

thermometer more
sensitive to changes
in temperature.
Alcohol expands
more than mercury,
so a mercury
thermometer must
have a narrower
tube than an alcohol
 Measuring temperature

Most liquids expand

Features of
slightly when heated. This liquid-in-glass
property is put to use in thermometers
thermometers filled with
alcohol or mercury.

Sensitivity. Range – mercury has a freezing point

At any
- The narrower the given of -39oC and a boiling point of 356oC.
temperatur
tube, the more the e same Alcohol freezes at -115oC, but boils at
increase in
liquid inside moves, volume of 78oC.
liquid
making the alcohol. Responsiveness – thermometers
thermometer more with large bulbs or thicker glass
sensitive to changes around the bulb respond less quickly
in temperature. to changes in temperature.
Alcohol expands
more than mercury,
so a mercury
thermometer must
have a narrower
tube than an alcohol
 Measuring temperature

Most liquids expand

Features of
slightly when heated. This liquid-in-glass
property is put to use in thermometers
thermometers filled with
alcohol or mercury.

Sensitivity. Range – mercury has a freezing point

At any
- The narrower the given of -39oC and a boiling point of 356oC.
temperatur
tube, the more the e same Alcohol freezes at -115oC, but boils at
increase in
liquid inside moves, volume of 78oC.
liquid
making the alcohol. Responsiveness – thermometers
thermometer more with large bulbs or thicker glass
sensitive to changes around the bulb respond less quickly
in temperature. to changes in temperature.
Alcohol expands
more than mercury, Linearity – the expansion of mercury is
so a mercury not quite linear compared with alcohol –
thermometer must they differ slightly, but these differences are
have a narrower not significant between 0oC and 100oC.
tube than an alcohol
 Measuring temperature
- Examples of
thermometers

Clinical thermometer.
- Measures human temperatures
very accurately. Scale is restricted
to a few degrees either side of the
normal body temperature (37oC). A
restriction in the neck stops the
mercury from dropping until the
reading is taken.
 Measuring temperature
- Examples of
thermometers

Clinical thermometer. Digital Clinical thermometer.

- Measures human temperatures - Contains a thermistor inside the
very accurately. Scale is restricted probe. As the temperature rises
to a few degrees either side of the the thermistor becomes a much
normal body temperature (37oC). A better conductor, causing a higher
restriction in the neck stops the current to flow, and so a higher
mercury from dropping until the reading on the meter.
reading is taken.
 Measuring temperature
- Examples of
thermometers

Thermocouple thermometer.
- Two different metals are joined
together to form two junctions in
the probe. A temperature
difference between the two
junctions causes a tiny voltage,
resulting in the flow of current. X
The greater the temperature X
difference between the two
junctions, the bigger the current.
http://www.omega.com/pptst/HH11B.html
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.3.1 Conduction
Core • Describe experiments to Supplement • Give a simple molecular
demonstrate the properties of good and account of conduction in solids including
bad thermal conductors lattice vibration and transfer by electrons
2.3.2 Convection
Core • Recognise convection as an
important method of thermal transfer in
fluids • Relate convection in fluids to
density changes and describe experiments
to illustrate convection

2.3.3 Radiation Supplement • Describe experiments to

Core • Identify infra-red radiation as part of show the properties of good and bad
the electromagnetic spectrum • Recognise emitters and good and bad absorbers of
that thermal energy transfer by radiation infra-red radiation • Show understanding
does not require a medium • Describe the that the amount of radiation emitted also
effect of surface colour (black or white) and depends on the surface temperature and
texture (dull or shiny) on the emission, surface area of a body
absorption and reflection of radiation

2.3.4 Consequences of energy transfer

Core • Identify and explain some of the
everyday applications and consequences of
conduction, convection and radiation
 Thermal
exchange
 Thermal
exchange

Conductio
n
 Thermal
exchange

Conductio Convectio
n n
 Thermal
exchange

Conductio Convectio
Radiation
n n
 Thermal
conduction
 Thermal
conduction

Metal bar

According to kinetic
theory, all materials
are made up of tiny,
moving particles. In a
solid these particles
tend to vibrate around
a fixed spot.
 Thermal
conduction

Metal bar

According to kinetic
theory, all materials
are made up of tiny,
moving particles. In a
solid these particles
tend to vibrate around
a fixed spot.

Heat
 Thermal
conduction

Metal bar

As the bar is heated,

the particles tend to
vibrate more.

Heat
 Thermal
conduction

Metal bar

As the bar is heated,

the particles tend to
vibrate more.
Thermal energy is
transferred from the
hot end to the cold
end as the particles
pass on their
increased kinetic
Heat energy to other
particles along the
 Thermal
conduction
Thermal energy transfer is increased
if:
1. Temperature difference Metal bar
across ends of bar is
increased.
Thermal energy transferred by conduction

As the bar is heated,

the particles tend to
vibrate more.
Thermal energy is
transferred from the
hot end to the cold
end as the particles
pass on their
increased kinetic
Heat energy to other
particles along the
 Thermal
conduction
Thermal energy transfer is increased
if:
1. Temperature difference Metal bar
across ends of bar is
increased.
Thermal energy transferred by conduction

As the bar is heated,

the particles tend to
vibrate more.
2. Cross-
Thermal energy is
sectional
area of the transferred from the
bar is hot end to the cold
increased. end as the particles
pass on their
increased kinetic
Heat energy to other
particles along the
 Thermal
conduction
Thermal energy transfer is increased
if:
1. Temperature difference Metal bar
across ends of bar is
increased.
Thermal energy transferred by conduction

As the bar is heated,

the particles tend to
vibrate more.
2. Cross- 3. The length
of the bar is
Thermal energy is
sectional
area of the reduced. transferred from the
bar is hot end to the cold
increased. end as the particles
pass on their
increased kinetic
Heat energy to other
particles along the
 Thermal
conduction
Conductors and
insulators
 Thermal
conduction
Conductors and
insulators
Metals are the
best thermal
conductors. They
feel cold to the
touch as heat is
quickly conducted
away from your
hand.
 Thermal
conduction
Conductors and
insulators
Metals are the
best thermal
conductors. They
feel cold to the
touch as heat is
quickly conducted
away from your
hand.

Non-metals tend
to be poor
conductors. A
polystyrene tile
feels warm to the
touch because it
stops your hand
from losing
thermal energy.
 Thermal
conduction
Conductors and
insulators
Metals are the
best thermal
Poor
conductors. They
feel cold to the
conductor
touch as heat is s are
quickly conducted
away from your called
hand.
insulators.
Non-metals tend
to be poor
conductors. A
polystyrene tile
feels warm to the
touch because it
stops your hand
from losing
thermal energy.
 Thermal
conduction
Conductors and
insulators
Metals are the
best thermal
Poor
conductors. They
feel cold to the
conductor
touch as heat is s are
quickly conducted
away from your called
hand.
insulators.
Non-metals tend Liquids are poor
to be poor conductors, and
conductors. A gases are the
polystyrene tile worst of all. Many
feels warm to the insulators have
touch because it tiny pockets of
stops your hand trapped air.
from losing
thermal energy.
 Thermal
conduction
Comparing conductors

Brass
Steel HEAT Aluminium

Drawing pin held

copper on with vaseline.
 Thermal
conduction
Comparing conductors

Brass
Steel HEAT Aluminium

Material Time for pin Drawing pin held

to fall (secs) on with vaseline.
Aluminium 125
copper

Brass 189
Copper 73
Steel 340
 Thermal
conduction
Comparing conductors

Brass
Conclusion:
Copper is the best
conductor of thermal
energy, steel is the worst.

Steel HEAT Aluminium

Material Time for pin Drawing pin held

to fall (secs) on with vaseline.
Aluminium 125
copper

Brass 189
Copper 73
Steel 340
 Thermal
conduction
Comparing conductors

Brass
Conclusion:
Copper is the best
conductor of thermal
energy, steel is the worst.

Steel HEAT Aluminium

Material Time for pin Drawing pin held

to fall (secs) on with vaseline.
Aluminium 125
copper
Textbook relative conductivity
Material values.
Brass 189
Copper 73 Aluminium 204

Steel 340 Brass 109

Copper 385
Steel 16
 Thermal
conduction
Comparing conductors

As the top of the

tube is heated, the
water boils and turns Boiling
into steam. water
The ice trapped at
the bottom of the

a
tube does not melt.

he
Gauze t

Ice
 Thermal
conduction
Comparing conductors

As the top of the

tube is heated, the
water boils and turns Boiling
into steam. water
The ice trapped at
the bottom of the

a
tube does not melt.

he
t
This experiment
shows that water is a
poor conductor of
thermal energy
Gauze (heat).

Ice
 Thermal
conduction
Using insulating
materials

http://www.tameside.gov.uk/toptips/august
 Thermal
conduction
Using insulating
materials

http://www.tameside.gov.uk/toptips/august

1. Double-
glazed
windows;
two sheets
of glass
with air
between
http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/physics/electricity/energy.html
them.
2. Wall cavity filled with plastic
foam, beads, or mineral wool.
 Thermal
conduction
Using insulating
materials
3. Loft
insulation –
glass or
mineral wool,
with air trapped
between the
http://www.bromacbuilders.com/insulation.html fibres.
http://www.tameside.gov.uk/toptips/august

1. Double-
glazed
windows;
two sheets
of glass
with air
between
http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/physics/electricity/energy.html
them.
2. Wall cavity filled with plastic
foam, beads, or mineral wool.
 Thermal
conduction
Using insulating
materials
3. Loft
insulation –
glass or
mineral wool,
with air trapped
between the
http://www.bromacbuilders.com/insulation.html fibres.
http://www.tameside.gov.uk/toptips/august

1. Double-
glazed
4. Plastic
windows;
foam
two sheets
lagging
of glass
around the
with air
hot water
between
storage
http://www.scienceaid.co.uk/physics/electricity/energy.html
them.
tank.
2. Wall cavity filled with plastic
foam, beads, or mineral wool. http://www.proinsulation.co.uk/Tank_&_Pipe_Insulation.html
 Thermal
conduction
Explaining conduction

In a metal, there are many tiny

electrons fixed inside the atoms.
Some, however, are ‘loose’ and
free to drift between the atoms. If
the metal is heated then the free
electrons begin to move more
quickly (they have more kinetic
energy).
 Thermal
conduction
Explaining conduction

In a metal, there are many tiny

electrons fixed inside the atoms.
Some, however, are ‘loose’ and
free to drift between the atoms. If
the metal is heated then the free
electrons begin to move more
quickly (they have more kinetic
energy).

These free electrons are moving Any material that conducts will
randomly within the metal. They have particles vibrating and
may collide with the atoms and pushing on neighbouring particles.
make them vibrate more quickly. But in metals, this energy transfer
This means that the thermal through the movement of free
energy is transferred rapidly to all electrons means that they conduct
parts, making metals good thermal energy much more quickly.
conductors.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.3.1 Conduction
Core • Describe experiments to Supplement • Give a simple molecular
demonstrate the properties of good and account of conduction in solids including
bad thermal conductors lattice vibration and transfer by electrons
2.3.2 Convection
Core • Recognise convection as an
important method of thermal transfer in
fluids • Relate convection in fluids to
density changes and describe experiments
to illustrate convection

2.3.3 Radiation Supplement • Describe experiments to

Core • Identify infra-red radiation as part of show the properties of good and bad
the electromagnetic spectrum • Recognise emitters and good and bad absorbers of
that thermal energy transfer by radiation infra-red radiation • Show understanding
does not require a medium • Describe the that the amount of radiation emitted also
effect of surface colour (black or white) and depends on the surface temperature and
texture (dull or shiny) on the emission, surface area of a body
absorption and reflection of radiation

2.3.4 Consequences of energy transfer

Core • Identify and explain some of the
everyday applications and consequences of
conduction, convection and radiation
 Convection

Convection involves the actual

movement of particles to carry
thermal energy. Liquids and gases
are poor conductors of heat, but
because their particles are free to
move from place to place so they
can transfer thermal energy by
convection.
 Convection

Convection involves the actual

movement of particles to carry
thermal energy. Liquids and gases
are poor conductors of heat, but
because their particles are free to
move from place to place so they
can transfer thermal energy by
convection.

Can we
see
convection
in a liquid?
 Convection

Convection involves the actual http://thermalphysics.weebly.com/convection.html

movement of particles to carry

thermal energy. Liquids and gases
are poor conductors of heat, but
because their particles are free to
move from place to place so they
can transfer thermal energy by
convection.

Can we
see
convection  The water above the heat source becomes
warmer, expands, and rises as it becomes
in a liquid? less dense.
 Convection

Convection involves the actual http://thermalphysics.weebly.com/convection.html

movement of particles to carry

thermal energy. Liquids and gases
are poor conductors of heat, but
because their particles are free to
move from place to place so they
can transfer thermal energy by
convection.

Can we
see
convection  The water above the heat source becomes
warmer, expands, and rises as it becomes
in a liquid? less dense.
 The cooler, more dense water sinks to the
bottom of the beaker. It is then heated.
 Convection

Convection involves the actual http://thermalphysics.weebly.com/convection.html

movement of particles to carry

thermal energy. Liquids and gases
are poor conductors of heat, but
because their particles are free to
move from place to place so they
can transfer thermal energy by
convection.

Can we
see
convection  The water above the heat source becomes
warmer, expands, and rises as it becomes
in a liquid? less dense.
 The cooler, more dense water sinks to the
bottom of the beaker. It is then heated.
 This circulation of warm and cold water
sets up a circulating stream, called a
convection current.
Convection

Convectio
n in
gases
Convection
http://www.pinterest.com/pin/452400725040236330/
Convection
http://www.pinterest.com/pin/452400725040236330/

During
daytime, as the
Sun shines,
land heats up
more quickly
than the sea.
This results in
air being
warmed and
rising. This
warmer air is
replaced by
cooler air
coming in from
the sea.
 Convection
http://www.pinterest.com/pin/452400725040236330/

During
daytime, as the
Sun shines,
land heats up
more quickly
than the sea.
This results in
air being
warmed and
rising. This
warmer air is
replaced by
cooler air
coming in from
The reverse happens during nighttime. The sea remains
the sea.
warmer than the land, which cools down more quickly. Above
the sea the warm air rises, and it is replaced by cooler air
coming in from the land.
Convection
 Convection
Convection in the
home
 Convection
Convection in the
home

1. As the convector
heater gets
warmer, it heats
air immediately
above it.

http://imgarcade.com/1/air-convection-currents/
 Convection
Convection in the
home

1. As the convector
heater gets
warmer, it heats
air immediately
above it. 2
2. The warm air rises,
carrying thermal
energy all around
the room. 1

http://imgarcade.com/1/air-convection-currents/
 Convection
Convection in the
home

1. As the convector
heater gets
warmer, it heats
air immediately
above it. 2
2. The warm air rises,
carrying thermal
energy all around
the room. 1 3
3. As the air cools, so
it falls towards the
floor before being
heated again.

http://imgarcade.com/1/air-convection-currents/
 Convection
Convection in the
home

http://chowlaiwan-physicsproject2009.blogspot.co.uk/

In the refrigerator, the cool air sinks below the freezer

compartment. This sets up a circulating current of air which
cools all food in the refrigerator.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
2.3.1 Conduction
Core • Describe experiments to Supplement • Give a simple molecular
demonstrate the properties of good and account of conduction in solids including
bad thermal conductors lattice vibration and transfer by electrons
2.3.2 Convection
Core • Recognise convection as an
important method of thermal transfer in
fluids • Relate convection in fluids to
density changes and describe experiments
to illustrate convection

2.3.3 Radiation Supplement • Describe experiments to

Core • Identify infra-red radiation as part of show the properties of good and bad
the electromagnetic spectrum • Recognise emitters and good and bad absorbers of
that thermal energy transfer by radiation infra-red radiation • Show understanding
does not require a medium • Describe the that the amount of radiation emitted also
effect of surface colour (black or white) and depends on the surface temperature and
texture (dull or shiny) on the emission, surface area of a body
absorption and reflection of radiation

2.3.4 Consequences of energy transfer

Core • Identify and explain some of the
everyday applications and consequences of
conduction, convection and radiation
Radiation
 Radiation
http://www.nasatech.com/PTB/features/2009/feat1_0909.html

Energy travels to us
from the Sun in the
form of
electromagnetic
radiation. These
waves can travel
through the vacuum
 Radiation
http://www.nasatech.com/PTB/features/2009/feat1_0909.html

Thermal radiation includes the

invisible infrared waves as well
as visible light.

Energy travels to us
from the Sun in the
form of
electromagnetic
radiation. These
waves can travel
through the vacuum
 Radiation
http://www.nasatech.com/PTB/features/2009/feat1_0909.html

Thermal radiation includes the

invisible infrared waves as well
as visible light.

All objects
give out
some
thermal
(heat)
radiation.

Energy travels to us
from the Sun in the
form of
electromagnetic
radiation. These
waves can travel
through the vacuum
 Radiation
http://www.nasatech.com/PTB/features/2009/feat1_0909.html

Thermal radiation includes the

invisible infrared waves as well
as visible light.

All objects
give out
some
thermal
(heat)
radiation.

Energy travels to us
Warm objects give out infrared
from the Sun in the
radiation. As objects become
form of
hotter, so they begin to give out
electromagnetic
shorter wavelengths such as light.
radiation. These
This is why hot objects, such as
waves can travel
grills, glow as they continue to
through the vacuum
heat up.
Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Take in
Give out thermal
thermal radiation
radiation
 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Take in
Give out thermal
thermal radiation
radiation Good emitters of
heat energy are
also good absorbers
 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Take in
Give out thermal
thermal radiation
radiation Good emitters of
heat energy are
also good absorbers

Emitters best worst

Matt Matt
White Silver
black black

Reflectors worst best

Absorbers best worst

 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Take in
Give out thermal
thermal radiation
radiation Good emitters of
heat energy are
also good absorbers

Emitters best worst

Matt Matt
White Silver
black black

Reflectors worst best In hot, sunny countries,

houses are often painted
Absorbers best worst white to reflect heat and
keep them cool.
 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Leslie’s cube Metal cube filled with
very hot water

Thermal radiation
Black face detector
Equal
distanc
e

Meter
Silver
White face face
 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Leslie’s cube Metal cube filled with
very hot water

Thermal radiation
Black face detector
Equal
distanc
e

Meter
Silver
White face face
The thermal radiation detector
compares the amount of heat
energy emitted from the
different faces.
 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Thermomete
r

Matt
black
surface
Silver
Radiant surface
heater
 Radiation
Emitters and
absorbers
Thermomete
r Thermometers are
attached to the rear of
metal plates which are
placed at equal distances
from the radiant heater.
Thermal energy from the
radiant heater is absorbed
by the two plates, and the
thermometers help us to
Matt
assess which colour is the
black
best absorber.
surface
Silver
Radiant surface
heater
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect.

Without this absorbing of the solar

radiation and the heat-trapping of
the atmosphere the Earth’s surface
would be about 25oC cooler than it
is.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect.

However, additional carbon dioxide

from the combustion of fuels may
be adding to this effect and
causing global warming.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect. In a greenhouse the Sun’s
thermal energy passes
through the glass panels,
warms the ground inside
and heats the air, but the
hot air then becomes
trapped.

However, additional carbon dioxide

from the combustion of fuels may
be adding to this effect and
causing global warming.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect. In a greenhouse the Sun’s
thermal energy passes
through the glass panels,
warms the ground inside
and heats the air, but the
hot air then becomes
trapped.
Solar panels use the Sun’s
thermal radiation to warm
up water for the house. A
blackened layer behind the
pipes absorbs the radiant
energy, heating the water
in the pipes. http://imgarcade.com/1/heater-clip-art/

However, additional carbon dioxide

from the combustion of fuels may
be adding to this effect and
causing global warming.
 Radiation
Thermal Radiation and the
Greenhouse Effect. In a greenhouse the Sun’s
thermal energy passes
through the glass panels,
warms the ground inside
and heats the air, but the
hot air then becomes
trapped.
Solar panels use the Sun’s
thermal radiation to warm
up water for the house. A
blackened layer behind the
pipes absorbs the radiant
energy, heating the water
in the pipes. http://imgarcade.com/1/heater-clip-art/

1. Plastic cap (stopper)

reduces conduction and
convection.
However, additional carbon dioxide 2. Vacuum in the gap
from the combustion of fuels may reduces conduction and
be adding to this effect and convection.
causing global warming. 3. Walls with silvery
http://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/Q&A/KS4/heat/A5.html surfaces reduce thermal