Lecture- Columns and Struts

Contents
1. Introduction.
2. Failure of a Column or Strut.
3. Euler’s Column Theory.
4. Assumptions in the Euler’s
Column Theory.
5. Sign Conventions.
6. Types of End Conditions of
Columns.
7. Columns with Both Ends
Hinged.
8. Columns with One End Fixed and
the Other Free.
9. Columns with Both Ends Fixed. 1. Introduction
10. Columns with One End Fixed and
the Other Hinged. A structural member, subjected to an axial
11. Euler’s Formula and Equivalent compressive force, is called a strut. As per defi-
Length of a Column. nition, a strut may be horizontal, inclined or
12. Slenderness Ratio. even vertical. But a vertical strut, used in
13. Limitations of Euler’s Formula. buildings or frames, is called a column.
14. Empirical Formulae for
Columns. 2. Failure of a Column or Strut
15. Rankine’s Formula for
Columns. It has been observed, that when a column or
16. Johnson’s Formula for a strut is subjected to some compressive force,
Columns. then the compressive stress induced,
17. Johnson’s Straight Line Formula
for Columns. P
18. Johnson’s Parabolic Formula for = A
Columns.
where P = Compressive force and
19. Indian Standard Code for
Columns. A = Cross-sectional area of the column.
20. Long Columns subjected to
Eccentric Loading.
 A little consideration will show, that if the force or load is gradually increased the column will
reach a stage, when it will be subjected to the ultimate crushing stress. Beyond this stage, the column
will fail by crushing. The load corresponding to the crushing stress, is called crushing load.
It has also been experienced that sometimes, a compression member does not fail entirely by
crushing, but also by bending i.e., buckling. This happens in the case of long columns. It has also
been observed that all the short columns fail due to their crushing. But, if a long column is subjected
to a compressive load, it is subjected to a compressive stress. If the load is gradually increased, the
col- umn will reach a stage, when it will start buckling. The load, at which the column just buckles is
called buckling load, criticial load or crippling load and the column is said to have developed an
elastic instability. A little consideration will show that for a long column, the value of buckling load
will be less than the crushing load. Moreover, the value of buckling load is low for long columns and
relatively high for short columns.

3. Euler’s Column Theory

The first rational attempt, to study the stability of *long columns, was made by Mr. Euler. He
derived an equation, for the buckling load of long columns based on the bending stress. While deriv-
ing this equation, the effect of direct stress is neglected. This may be justified with the statement that
the direct stress induced in a long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. It may be
noted that the Euler’s formula cannot be used in the case of short columns, because the direct stress
is considerable and hence cannot be neglected.

4. Assumptions in the Euler’s Column Theory

The following simplifying assumptions are made in the Euler’s column theory:
1. Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly axial.
2. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
3. The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic and thus obeys Hooke’s
law.
4. The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensions.
5. The shortening of column, due to direct compression (being very small) is neglected.
6. The failure of column occurs due to buckling alone.

5. Sign Conventions
Though there are different signs used for the bending of columns in different books, yet we shall
follow the following sign conventions which are commonly used and internationally recognised.

Fig. 1

1. A moment, which tends to bend the column with convexity towards its initial central line as
shown in Fig. 34.1 (a) is taken as positive.
2. A moment, which tends to bend the column with its concavity towards its initial central line as
shown in Fig. 34.1 (b) is taken as negative.
* As a matter of fact, mere length is not the only criterion for a column to be called long or short. But it has
an important relation with the lateral dimensions of the column.
.6. Types of End Conditions of Columns
In actual practice, there are a number of end conditions, for columns. But, we shall study the
Euler’s column theory on the following four types of end conditions, which are important from the
subject point of view:
1. Both ends hinged,
2. Both ends fixed,
3. One end is fixed and the other hinged, and
4. One end is fixed and the other free.
Now we shall discuss the value of critical load for all the above mentioned type of and
conditions of columns one by one.

7. Columns with Both Ends Hinged

Consider a column AB of length l hinged at both of its ends A and B and
carrying a critical load at B. As a result of loading, let the column deflect into a
curved form AX1B as shown in Fig. 34.2.

Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A.

Let P = Critical load on the column,
y = Deflection of the column at X.
 Moment due to the critical load P,
M = –P·y
2
 EI d y =–P·y ... (Minus sign due to
dx2 concavity towards initial
2
EI d y  P · y = 0 centre line)

dx2
Fig. 2
or d 2y P
 ·y = 0
dx2 EI
The general solution of the above differential equation is
⎛ P ⎞
⎛ P ⎞
y = A · cos ⎝⎜ x EI ⎟⎠  B sin ⎝x EI ⎟
⎠ know that when x = 0, y = 0. Therefore A = 0.
where A and B are the constants of⎜ integration. We
Similarly when x = l, then y = 0. Therefore
⎛
0 = B sin⎜ l P ⎞
⎝ EI ⎟⎠
 ⎛ P ⎞
A little consideration will show that either B is equal to zero or sin l ⎜
⎝ EI ⎟
Nowisifequal to zero. B to be equal to zero, then it indicates that the column has not bent at all. But if
we consider ⎠
⎛
sin l⎜ P ⎞ = 0
⎝ EI ⎟⎠

P
= 0 =  = 2 = 3 = .......
 EIl
Now taking the least significant value,

P
l = 
EI

2 EI
or P= 2
l

8. Columns with One End Fixed and the Other Free

Consider a column AB of length l fixed at A and free at B and carrying a critical load at B. As a
result of loading, let the beam deflect into a curved form AX1B1 such that the
free end B deflects through a and occupies a new position B1 as shown
in Fig. 34.3.
Now consider any section X at a distance x from A.
Let P = Critical load on the column and
y = Deflection of the column at X.
 Moment due to the critical load P,
M = + P (a – y)
= P ·a – P · y ... (Plus sign due to
2 convexity towards
EI d = P · a – P · y initial centre line)

ydx2

P·
or d 2y P
2  ·y =a Fig. .3
dx EI
EI
The general solution of the above differential equation is,
⎛ P
⎞⎜ ⎛ P⎞a ...(i)
y = A cos ⎝⎜ x EI ⎟⎠  B sin ⎝x EI ⎟
where A and B are the constants of integration.⎠We know that when x = 0, then y = 0, therefore
A = – a. Now differentiating the above equation,

dy P sin ⎛ ⎜ P⎞B P ⎛ P ⎞
= A x EIcos ⎝x
⎝⎜ EI ⎟⎠ EI ⎟⎠
dx EI
dy
We also know that when x = 0, then dx= 0. Therefore

P
0= B
EI
 A little consideration will show that either B is equal to zero of P
EIis equal to zero. Since
the load P is not equal to zero, it is thus opbvious that B is equal to zero.
Now substituting the values
A = – a and B = 0 is equation (i), ⎛ P ⎞ ⎡ ⎛
x  a  a ⎢1cos⎜ P ⎞⎤
y = – a cos ⎜ ⎝ x EI ⎟ ⎝ EI ⎟⎥
⎠ ⎠
We also know that when x = l, then y = a. Therefore
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛
a ⎢1cos⎜ l P ⎞⎤
a=
⎣ ⎝ EI ⎟⎥
⎠
⎛ ⎦
 cos⎜ l P ⎞ = 0
⎝ EI ⎟⎠

or l P =   3 
EI 2 2 2
5
Now taking the least significant value,
P
l =
EI 2
2 EI
 P=
4 l2

9. Columns with Both Ends Fixed

Consider a column AB of length l fixed at both of its ends A and B and
carrying a critical load at B. As a result of loading, let the column deflect as
shown in Fig. 34.4
Now consider any section X at a distance x from A.
Let P = Critical load on the column and
y = Deflection of the column at X.
A little consideration will show that since both the ends of the beam AB
are fixed and it is carrying a load, therefore there will be some fixed end
moments at A and B.
Let M0 = Fixed end moments at A and B.
 Moment due to the critical load P,
M=–P·y Fig .4

2
EI d = M0 – P · y ...(Minus sign due to concavity
ydx 2 initial centre line)
M0
 d 2y P =
2  ·y
dx EI EI
The general solution of the above differential equation is:
⎛ P
⎞⎜ ⎛ P⎞ M0 ...(i)
y = A cos ⎝⎜ x EI ⎟⎠  B sin ⎝x EI ⎠⎟ P
where A and B are the constants of integration. We know that when x = 0, then y = 0. Therefore
M0
A  . Now differentiating the above equation,
P
dy
⎛ ⎜ P⎞B P ⎛ P ⎞
=  A P sin x
⎝ EI ⎟⎠ EIcos ⎜⎝x EI ⎟⎠
dx EI

We also know that when x = 0, then dydx= 0. Therefore

P
0= B EI

A little consideration will show, that either B is equal to zero, or P isEIequal to zero. Since the
M0
load P is not equal to zero, it is thus obvious that B is equal to zero. Substituting the values A  P
and B = 0 in equation (i),
M0 ⎛ P ⎞ M0 M 0⎡ ⎛
y=  cos ⎜x ⎜ P ⎞⎤
P   1cos l
⎝ EI ⎟ P P⎢ ⎣ ⎝ EI ⎟⎥
⎠
⎠
We also know that when x = l, then y = 0. Therefore
⎦
0= M0⎡ P ⎞⎤
⎢1cos l
⎛P ⎣ ⎜ ⎝ EI ⎟⎥
⎠
⎛
cos ⎜l P ⎞ = 1 ⎦

⎝ ⎟
EI ⎠
P
or l = 0 = 2 = 4 = 6 = .......
EI
Now taking the least significant value,
P
l = 2
EI
42 EI
 P=
l2
Alternative Methods

1. The fixed beam AB may bne considered as equivalent to a column of length l with
2 both ends
hinged (i.e., middle portion of the column as shown in Fig. 34.4).

 Critical load, P= 2 EI  42 EI

2 2
⎛l⎞ l
⎝⎜ 2
⎠⎟
2. The fixed beam AB may also be considered as equivalent to a column of length l with
4 one end
fixed and the other free (i.e., lower one-fourth portion of the beam as shown in
Fig. 34.4).
2 2
 Critical load, P =  EI  4 EI
⎛l⎞
2 l2
4⎜⎝ ⎟
4
⎠
10. Columns with One End Fixed and the Other Hinged
Consider a column AB of length l fixed at A and hinged at B and
carrying a critical load at B. As a result of loading, let the column deflect as
shown in Fig. .5.
Now consider any section X at a distance x from A.
Let P = Critical load on the column, and
y = Deflection of the beam at X,
A little consideration will show, that since the beam AB is fixed at A
and it is carrying a load, therefore, there will be some fixed end moment at
A. In order to balance the fixing moment at A, there will be a horizontal
reaction at B.
Let MA = Fixed end mement at A and
H = Horizontal reaction at B.
 Moment due to critical load P,
M = – P · y ...(Minus sign due to conscavity Fig. 5
towards initial centre line
2
EI d
or = H (l – x) – P · y
ydx 2

H (l  x)
 d 2y P =
dx 2  ·y EI
EI
The general solution of the above differential equation is
⎛ P ⎞
⎛ P ⎞  H (l  x) ...(i)
A = y cos ⎝⎜x ⎟
EI ⎠  B sin x
⎝ EI ⎟ P
⎜ ⎠
where A and B are the constants of integration. We know that when x = 0, they y = 0. Therefore A =
P
Hl
. Now differentiating the above equation,

dy
=  A P sin ⎛ x ⎜ P⎞B P ⎛ P⎞H
EI ⎝ EI ⎟⎠ EIcos ⎜⎝x EI ⎠⎟
dx P
dy = 0. Therefore
We know that when x = 0, dx

P H
0= B EI 
P
 B= P  EI
H P
We also know that when x = l, then y = 0. Therefore substituting these values of x, A and B is
equation (i),

⎛ P ⎞ H EI ⎛ P ⎞
P l ⎜⎝
0 = Hl cos
EI ⎠⎟ P P sin ⎜⎝l EI ⎟⎠

H ⎛ P ⎞ = Hl ⎛ P ⎞
EI
 P P sin ⎜⎝l EI ⎟⎠ P cos ⎜⎝l EI ⎟⎠
 ⎛ ⎛
or tan ⎜l P ⎞ l P ⎞
⎝ EI ⎟ = ⎜⎝ EI ⎟
⎠ ⎠ ⎛
l P ⎞
A little consideration will show that the value of ⎜⎝ EI ⎟ in radians, has to be such that its
tangent is equal to itself. We know that the only angle, the⎠ value of whose tangent is equal to itself, is
about 4.5 radians.
P 20.25 EI
P = 4.5 or l 2   20.25 or P=
 l EI l2
EI 2

2 EI
2
 P l
NOTE: A little consideration will show that 20.25 is not exactly equal to 22, but approximately equal to 22.
This has been done to rationalise the value of P, i.e., crippling load in various cases.
11. Euler’s Formula and Equivalent length of a Column
In the previous articles, we have derived the relations for the crippliing load under various end
conditions. Sometimes, all these cases are represented by a general equation called Euler’s formula,
 2 EI
PE = L 2
e
where Le is the equivalent or effective length of column.
The is another way of representing the equation, for the crippling load by an equivalent length
of effective length of a column. The equivalent length of a given column with given end conditions,
is the length of an equivalent column of the same material and cross-section with both ends hinged
and having the value of the crippling load equal to that of the given column.
The equivalent lengths (L) for the given end conditions are given below:

Table 1
S.No. End conditions Relation between equivalent Crippling load (P)
length (Le) and actual length (l)
2
 EI 2
1. Both ends hinged Le = l P = l 2 =  2EI
l

2 EI 2 EI
2. One end fixed and the other free Le = 2 l
P= =
(2l)2 4 l 2
l P= =
2
Both ends fixed Le = 2 2 Êlˆ
p EI 3.
Ë
2¯
42 EI
l l 22
P = p EI 2 = 2 EI
2

2 Êl ˆ
ÁË 2 ˜¯ l2

4. I One
NOTE. The vertical column will have two moments of inertia (viz., end fixed and the other
XX and LYY). Since the column will tend to
hingedL =
buckle in the direction of leas moment of inertia, therefore the least value of the two moments of inertia
e
is to be used in tlhe relation.
12. Slenderness Ratio
We have already discussed in Art. 11 that the Euler’s formula for the crippling load,
 2 EI
PE = L 2
e ...(i)
We know that the buckling of a column under the crippling load will take place about the axis of
least resistance. Now substituting I = Ak2 (where A is the area and k is the least radius of gyration of
the section) in the above equation,

= p EA2
2

PE =
p 2 E Ak (2 ÊL ˆ
...(ii)
Le
e
Á ˜
where Lis known as slenderness ratio. Thus Ë k ¯ratio is defined as ratio of equivalent (or
k
e 2
)
slenderness

unsupported) length of column to the least radius of gyration of the section.

Slenderness ratio does not have any units.
NOTE. It may be noted that the formula for crippling load, in the pervious articles, have been derived on the
L
assumption the the slenderness ratio ekis so large, that the failure of the column occurs only due to
P
bending, the effect of direct stress (i.e., )Abeing negligible.

13. Limitation of Euler’s Formula

We have discussed in Art. 12 that the Euler’s formula for the crippling load,
p 2 EA
PE =
2
Ê Le ˆ
Á ˜
Ëk ¯
 Euler’s crippling stress,

P p2 E
E = A = 2
Ê L ˆe
Á ˜
Ëk ¯
A little consideration will show that the crippling
stress will be high, when the slenderness ratio is
small. We know that the crippling stress for a
column cannot be more than the crushing stress of
the column mate- rial. It is thus obvious that the
Euler’s formula will give the value of crippling
stress of the column (equal to the crushing stress of
the column material) corre- sponding to the
slenderness ratio. Now consider a mild steel column.
We know that the crushing stress for the mild steel is
320 MPa or 320 N/m2 and Young’s modu- lus for the
mild steel is 200 GPa or 200 × 103 N/mm2.
Now equating the crippling stress 2to the 2
320 =  E    (200 
crushing stress, 3 2
⎛10 Le )⎞ ⎛ Le ⎞
2⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎝k⎠ ⎝k
⎠⎟ 2
Ê Le ˆ
2   200 
 =
ËÁ k ¯ 103 320
˜
L
or = 78.5 say 80
e
Thus, if the slenderness ratiokis less than 80 the Euler’s formula for a mild steel column is not
valid.
Sometimes, the columns, whose slenderness ratio is more than 80 are known as long columns
and those whose slenderness ratio is less than 80 are known as short columns. It is thus obvious that
the Euler’s formula holds good only for long columns.
NOTE. In the Euler’s formula, for crippling load, we have not taken into account the direct stresses induced in
the material due to the load, (which increases gradually from zero to its crippling value). As a matter of
fact, the combined stress, due to direct load and slight bending reaches its allowable value at a load,
lower than that required for buckling ; and therefore this will be the limiting value of the safe load.
 EXAMPLE 1. A steel rod 5 m long and of 40 mm diameter is used as a column, with on
end fixed and the other free. Determine the crippling load by Euler’s formula. Take E as 200 GPa.

SOLUTION. Given : Length (l ) = 5 m = 5 × 103 mm ; Diameter of column (d) = 40 mm and

modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm2.
We know that moment of iertia of the column section,

I=  (d)4    (40)4 = 40 000  mm4
64 64
Since the column is fixed at one end and free at the other, therefore equivalent length of the
column,
3
3
Le = 2 l = 2 × (5 × 10 ) = 10 × 10 mm
 Euler’s crippling load, PE = 2 EI  2  (200  103)  (40 000 = 2480 N
2 (10 
)Le 3 2
= 2.48 kN Ans. 10 )
EXAMPLE .2. A hollow alloy tube 4 m long with external and internal diameters of 40 mm
and 25 mm respectively was found to extend 4.8 mm under a tensile load of 60 kN. Find the buckling
load for the tube with both ends pinned. Also find the safe load on the tube, taking a factor of safety
as 5.
SOLUTION. Given : Length l = 4 m ; External diameter of column (D) = 40 mm ; Internal
diameter of column (d) = 25 mm ; Deflection (l ) = 4.8 mm ; Tensile load = 60 kN = 60 × 103 N
and factor of safety = 5.
Buckling load for the tube
We know that area of the tube,

A =  4 [D 2  d 2 ]   [(40) 2 2
4  (25) ] = 765.8 mm
2

and moment of inertia of the tube,


I= [D4  d 4 ]   [(40)4  (25)4] = 106 500 mm4
64 64
We also know that strain in the alloy tube,

e= l 4.8
l  4  0.0012
103
and modulus of elasticity for the alloy,

E= Load 60  103 2

Area × Strain 765.8  0.0012 = 65 290 N/mm
Since the column is pinned at its both ends, therefore equivalent length of the column,
3
Le = l = 4 × 10 mm

2 EI  2  65 290  106500
 Euler’s buckling load, PE =
Le 2 (4  = 4290 N
3 2
= 4.29 kN 10 )
Safe load for the tube Ans.
We also know that safe load for the tube

Buckling load 4.29

= Factor Ans.

of safety = 0.858 kN
5
 EXAMPLE .3. Compare the ratio of the strength of a solid steel column to that of a hollow of
the same cross-sectional area. The internal diameter of the hollow column is 3/4 of the exter- nal
diameter. Both the columns have the same length and are pinned at both ends.
SOLUTION. Give : Area of solid steel colum AS = AH (where AH = Area of hollow column) ;
Internal diameter of hollow column (d) = 3 D/4 (where D = External diameter) and length of solid
column (lS) = lH (where lH = Length of hollow column).
Let D1 = Diameter of the solid column,
kH = Radius of gyration for hollow column and
kS = Radius of gyration for solid column.
Since both the columns are pinned at their both ends, therefore equivalent length of the solid
column,
LS = lS = LH = lH = L
We know that Euler’s crippling load for the solid column,
2 2 S 2
PS =  2EI   E · A ·Sk ...(i)
LH
L2
Similarly Euler’s crippling load for the hollow column

2 2 H 2
PH =  2EI   E · A ·2Hk ...(ii)
LH L
Dividing equation (ii) by (i),
D2  d 2 D 2 ⎛ 3D
PH ⎛ ⎞2 D2  d 2 2 ⎜ 4

PS = k⎜ H ⎟  16  ⎞ ⎠
⎝
⎝ kS D12 D12 ⎟D12
 16
⎠
25 D2
= ...(iii)
16 D12
Since the cross-sectional areas of the both the columns is equal, therefore

7 D2
  D 2 =  (D  d )  D⎡ 2 ⎛ 3 D ⎞⎤ 
2 2 2

4
⎢ ⎥
4 ⎢ ⎜ ⎝4 ⎟ ⎠ 4 16
4 1

⎣ ⎥⎦
7 D2
 =
D12 16

Now substituting the value of D2 in equation

1 (iii),

PH 25 D 2 Ans.
P = 
25S 16  7 D2 7
16
 EXAMPLE .4. An I section joist 400 mm × 200 mm × 20 mm and 6 m long is used as a strut
with both ends fixed. What is Euler’s cripp;ing load for the column? Take Young’s modulus for the
joist as 200 GPa.
SOLUTION. Given : Outer depth (D) = 400 mm ; Outer width (B) = 200 mm ; Length (l ) = 6 m =
6 × 103 mm and modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm2.
From the geometry of the figure, we find that inner depth,
d = 400 – (2 × 20) = 360 mm
and inner width, b = 200 – 20 = 180 mm
We know that moment of inertia of the joist section about X-X axis,

IXX = 112
[BD2  ba3]
1
= [200  (400)3  180  (360)3] mm4
12
= 366.8 × 106 mm4 ...
(i)
⎡
Similarly, 2  (200)3⎥⎤ 360  4
IYY = ⎢2⎢ 12 mm 12
(20)3 Fig. 6
⎥ ⎦
= ⎣2.91 × 106 mm4

take the value of I as IYY= 2.91...(ii)

× 106 mm4. Moreover, as the column is fixed at its both ends,
equivalent
Since Ilength
therefore of the column,
YY is less than IXX, therefore the joist will tend to buckle in Y-Y direction. Thus, we shall

l  (6  103)  3  103
Le =
2 2 mm
 Euler’s crippling load for the column,

PE = 2 EI  2  (200  103)  (2.91  106) 638.2  103

Le2 (3  N
3 2
= 638.2
 kN Ans. 10 )
 EXAMPLE .5. A T-section 150 mm × 120 mm × 20 mm is used as a strut of 4 m long with
hinged at its both ends. Calculate the crippling load, if Young’s modulus for the material be 200
GPa.
SOLUTION. Given : Size of T-section = 150 mm × 120 mm × 20 mm ; Length (l ) = 4 m = 4 ×
103 mm and Young’s modulus (E) = 200 GPa = 200 × 103 N/mm2.
First of all, let us find the centre of the T-section; Let bottom of the web be the axis of
reference.

Web 2
a1 = 100 × 20 = 2000 mm

y1 = 100  50 mm
2
Flange
a2 = 150 × 20 = 3000 mm2

y2 = 120  ⎛ 20 ⎞
⎝⎜ 2  110 mm
We know that distance between the centre⎠⎟of gravity of the T- Fig. .7
section and bottom of the web

a1 y1  a2 y2

(2000  50)  (3000  110)  86 mm
y=
a  a2 200  3000
We also know that moment of inertia of 1the T-section about X-X axis,

⎛ 20(100)3 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ 4
IXX = ⎜ 12 2000(36)   3000(24) mm
⎝ ⎟ ⎜
⎠ 150(20) 3 ⎟
⎠
⎝ ×12106) + (1.83 × 106) = 6.09 × 106 mm4
= (4.26

Similarly, IYY = 100  9200)3  20  (150)3 5.069  106 4

mm
Since IYY is less than IXX, therefore the column will tend to buckle in Y-Y direction. Thus, we

the value of I as I YY = 5.69 × 106 mm4. Moreover, as the column is hinged at its both ends,
take shall
therfore length of the 12 12
3
column, Le = l = 4 × 10
mm

 Euler’s crippling load, PE = 2 EI  2  (200  103)  (5.69  106) 702  103

Le2 (4  N
 kN 103)2
= 702 Ans.

EXERCISE 4
1. A mild steel column of 50 mm diameter is hinged at both of its ends. Find the crippling load
for the column, if its length is 2.5 m. Take E for the column material as 200 GPa. [Ans. 96.9
kN]
2. A hollow cast iron column of 150 mm external diameter and 100 mm internal diameter is 3.5
m long. If one and of the column is rigidity fixed and the other is free, find the critical load on
the column. Assume modulus of elasticity for the column material as 120 GPa. [Ans. 482 kN
3. A 1.75 m long steel column of rectangular cross-section 120 mm × 100 mm is rigidity fixed at
one end and hinged at the other. Determine the buckling load on the column and the
correspond- ing axial stress using Euler’s formula. Take E for the column material as 200 GPa.
[Ans. 12.84 MN ; 1070 MPa]
4. An -section 240 mm × 120 mm × 20 mm is used as 6 m long column with both ends fixed.
What is the crippling load for the column? Take Young’s modulus for the joist as 200 GPa.
[Ans. 1292.5 kN]