BEE101 APPLIED ELECTRONICS

JEMIMA YEBOAA ANSU GYAU

 Course Content
Semiconduc
Semiconductor Operational
tor
Diodes & Amplifiers and
Materials Transistor as an
Applications Switching
and Amplifier
Theory
Properties

Semiconduc Bipolar
tor Diodes Junction
Transistor

2
Course Content
Grading System:
• Exams 70%
• Quizzes 5%
• Mid-Semester Exams 25%

3
Recommended Textbooks
1. Electronic Principles by Albert Pual Malvino and David
Bates

2. Principles of Electronics by V K Mehta

3. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory by R. L.

Boylestad and L. Nashelsky

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 1
SEMICONDUCTOR
MATERIALS AND
PROPERTIES

5
1. CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS
AND SEMICONDUCTORS

6
Electronic Materials
The goal of electronic materials is to generate and control the flow of
an electrical current.
Electronic materials can be classified into the following:
1. Conductors
Have low resistance which allows electrical current flow.

2. Insulators
have high resistance which suppresses electrical current flow.

3. Semiconductors
Can allow or suppress electrical current flow

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Conductors, semiconductors and
insulators
The difference in the behaviour of electronic materials in terms of their
conductivity can be beautifully explained with the help of energy bands.

Insulators Conductors Semi – Conductors

Large energy Conduction band and Small energy difference
difference between valence band overlap between conduction band
conduction band and and valence band
valence band
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Conductors
Good conductors have low resistance so electrons flow through them
with ease.
Best element conductors include:
• Copper, silver, gold, aluminium, & nickel.

Alloys are also good conductors:

• Brass & steel

Good conductors can also be liquid:

• Salt water

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Atomic Structure of Conductors
The atomic structure of good
conductors usually includes only one
•

electron in their outer shell.

• It is called a valence electron.

It is easily striped from the atom,

producing current flow.
•

Copper Atom

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Insulators
Insulators have a high resistance so current does not flow in
them.
•

• Good insulators include: Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood

• Most insulators are compounds of several elements.

The atoms are tightly bound to one another so electrons are

difficult to strip away for current flow.
•

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Semi-Conductors
A semiconductor is a material with conducting properties
between those of a good insulator and a good conductor.
•

Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and germanium

are semiconductors.
•

• Silicon is the best and most widely used semiconductor.

Questions
1. Why is Silicon the most widely used semiconductor?
2. Why is Silicon preferred to Germanium?
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Semi-Conductors Elements in the Periodic Table

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Semi-Conductor Valence Orbit

The main characteristic of

semiconductor element is that it has
four electrons in its outer or valence
orbit.
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Crystal Lattice Structure
A crystal is a substance whose
atoms or molecules are arranged
•

in a ordered pattern.

The unique capability of

semiconductor atoms is their
•

ability to link together to form a

physical structure called a 2-D Structure

crystal lattice.

The atoms link together with one

another sharing their outer
•

electrons.
3-D Structure 15
Silicon
Silicon is a tetravalent element, which means it has four valence
electrons and four vacancies.
•

In intrinsic (pure) silicon, atoms join together by forming covalent

bonds. Each atom shares its valence electrons with each of four
•

adjacent neighbours effectively filling its outer shell.

When temperature goes up, electrons can become free to move
about the Si lattice.
•

• Atomic density: 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3

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Electronic Properties of Si
• Silicon is a semiconductor material.
• Pure Si has a relatively high electrical resistivity at room temperature.

There are two(2) types of mobile charge-carriers in Si:

• Electrons - negatively charged
• Holes - are positively charged.

The concentration (#/cm3) of conduction electrons & holes in a

semiconductor can be modulated in several ways:
• by adding special impurity atoms ( dopants )
• by applying an electric field
• by changing the temperature
• by irradiation
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 2. Classification of
Semiconductors

“
Semiconductors are classified into two types:
a) Intrinsic semiconductors

b) Extrinsic semiconductors

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
A semiconductor is said to be intrinsic if it contains no impurities and
no crystalline defects.
•

• The structure has zero overall charge.

Behaviour at absolute zero

• At absolute zero, every electron is at the lowest energy state.
• Electrons occupy all of the electronic states in the valence band, and
the states in the conduction band are empty.
• The intrinsic semiconductor thus behaves as a perfect insulator at
absolute zero temperature.
• However, the covalent bonds can be broken if sufficient energy is
applied to the semiconductor.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Behaviour at room or higher temperatures
• At room or higher temperatures, electrons acquire thermal energy,
which is transferred to them from the crystal lattice.

The atoms in the crystal lattice vibrate, and these vibrations can be
transmitted through the crystal as acoustic waves called phonons.
•

Phonons can excite electrons from the valence band (VB) to the
conduction band (CB).
•

Electrons leaving the VB to CB creates a vacancy called hole in the

valence band. A hole is a vacancy in a covalent bond with a unit
•

positive charge associated with it.

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
Behaviour at room or higher temperatures
• The electron is now free, and there is a free hole in the valence band.

Every electron that escapes to conduction band creates a

corresponding hole in the valence band, creating an electron-hole
•

pair.

When electron-hole pair is created by absorption of phonons, we call

the process thermal generation.
•

If photons provide the energy, the process is termed optical

generation.
•

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Intrinsic Semiconductors
The free electrons in the semiconductor can fall into holes in a process
known as recombination.
•

• Energy is given up by the electrons in this process.

An intrinsic semiconductor is said to be in thermal equilibrium at any

given temperature when the recombination rate is equal to the
•

ionization rate.

For an intrinsic semiconductor at thermal equilibrium, the equilibrium

concentration no of electrons in the conduction band is the same as the
•

equilibrium concentration po of holes in the valence band:

n o = po = n i
Where n is the equilibrium carrier concentration in an intrinsic
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Law of mass action
For an intrinsic semiconductor
n o = po = n i
n = concentration of electrons per unit volume
p = concentration of holes per unit volume

This is due to fact that when an electron makes a transition to the

conduction band, it leaves a hole behind in valence band .
•

• Thus the number of holes and electrons are equal, hence

np = ni2
• This equation is called as mass-action law.
• This equation is valid for extrinsic as well.

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Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Si
The intrinsic carrier concentration ni depends on;
• the semiconductor material, and
• the temperature

For silicon at 300 K, ni has a value of 1.5 × 1010cm-3

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Doping
To increase the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor, one can
introduce an impurity in a process known as doping.
•

These impurities are atoms from column III or V of the periodic table.
They are referred to as dopants
•

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Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Intrinsic conduction is very small.
Conductivity levels can be raised and controlled by doping with
minute levels of impurity atoms to give extrinsic or doped
•

semiconductors.

Extrinsic semiconductors may be further divided into either

• N-type
• P-type

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N-type Semiconductors
This is formed by adding a pentavalent atom to the intrinsic
semiconductor.
•

These atoms with five valence electrons are known as donor atoms
because they provide an extra electron to the semiconductor’s
•

crystal structure.

• The extra electron becomes a conduction electron.

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N-type Semiconductors

For N-type, n >> p;

n is the majority carrier
concentration nn
p is the minority carrier 28
P-type Semiconductors
• Here the doping atom has only three electrons in its outer shell.

It is relatively easy for an electron from a neighbouring atom to

move in, so releasing a hole at its parent atom.
•

• The freed hole is available for conduction.

The energy needed to free the electron from its parent is usually
small compared to the thermal energy so each impurity atom
•

contributes one hole for conduction (fully ionised).

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P-type Semiconductors

For P-type, p >> n;

p is the majority carrier concentration pp
n is the minority carrier concentration np
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Summary of Charge Carriers

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Electron and Hole Concentrations
Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the product of the
conduction-electron density and the hole density is ALWAYS
equal to the square of ni:

np = ni2

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Question 1
Calculate the hole and electron densities in a piece of p-type silicon that
has been doped with 5 × 1016 acceptor atoms per cm3. ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm3
(at room temperature).

Solution
P-type ; p ≫ n
np = ni2
NA = p = 5 × 1016 cm-3
n==
n = 4.5 × 103 electrons per cm3

NB: p ≫ ni and n ≪ ni in a p-type material. The more holes you put in the
less electrons you have and vice versa 33
Carrier Movement

“
1. Drift Current

2. Diffusion Current

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Carrier Movement
There are two mechanisms by which holes and free electrons move
through a silicon crystal.

Drift
The carrier motion is generated by the electrical field across a piece of
silicon. This motion will produce drift current.

Diffusion
The carrier motion is generated by the different concentration of carrier
in a piece of silicon. The diffused motion, usually carriers diffuse from
high concentration to low
concentration, will give rise to diffusion current.

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Carrier Mobility
Mobility
• Mobility is a measure of how easily a carrier moves in particular
material.
• It is normally expressed in centimetres squared per volt-second
(cm2/Vs).
• Carrier mobility, µ = and it is the drift velocity per unit field.

Drift velocity
• Drift velocity is the average velocity with which the charge carriers
drift in a definite direction under the influence of an applied electric
field.
• The unit of µ is = cm2/Vs
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1. Drift Current
Drift current is produced by the motion of electrons and holes
under an electric field.
•

• The net current is always in the direction of applied electric field.

• The current due to both charges move in the same direction.
Idrift = In(drift) + Ip(drift)

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Current Density
• In a semiconductor, it is often more useful to talk about current density.
Current Density (J) is the amount of charge crossing a plane unit area
per unit time.
•

J=
For a semiconductor with an applied electric field, the total drift current
is:
•

Jdrift = Jn(drift) + Jp(drift)

Where
• Jn(drift)is the current due to electrons
• Jp(drift) is the current due to holes

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Conductivity
When an electric field E is applied to a semiconductor, the free
electrons drift with average velocity ve = −µeE , where µe
•

is the electron mobility.

• The holes drift with a velocity vh = +µhE, where µh is the hole mobility.

Although the free electrons and holes drift in opposite directions, the
current densities add because the charge polarities are opposite.
•

The electron charge density is ρe = −nq and the hole charge density is
ρh = +pq, where n and p represent the electron and hole
•

concentrations respectively.
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Conductivity
• The total conduction current density can be written as:
Jdrift = ρeve + ρhvh = (nµe + pµp)qE = σE

This equation defines the conductivity σ of the semiconductor. It is

given by:
•

σ = (nµe + pµp)q

Alternatively, the conductivity can be obtained from the dimensions of

the semiconductor as follows.
•

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Conductivity
From ohm’s law, the resistance R of a uniform sample of length L and
cross-sectional area A as illustrated in the semiconductor block below,
•

is
R==
• Since the semiconductor is uniform, V = EL and using I = JA,

Jdrift = = σE
• where σ = is the conductivity.
• E is the electric field and ρ is the resistivity

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Example 2
A rod of intrinsic silicon is 1 cm long and has a diameter of 1mm. At room
temperature, the intrinsic concentration in the silicon is n i = 1.5 × 1016
per m3. The electron and hole mobilities are µe = 0.13 m2V−1 s−1 and µh =
0.05 m2V−1 s−1.
Calculate the conductivity of the silicon and the resistance R of the rod.

Solution
The conductivity is calculated as follows:
σ = ni(µe + µh)q
σ = 1.5 × 1016 × (0.13 + 0.05) × 1.602 × 10-19
σ = 4.33 × 10-4 S/m

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Solution
Resistance is calculated as:
R==

R = 29.4 MΩ

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Temperature sensitivity
In both types of extrinsic semiconductor virtually all available charge
carries are freed from their parent atoms at room temperature.
•

Temperature variations thus make little difference to the conductivity,

σ.
•

For intrinsic conductivity the number of carriers, and thus, increases

rapidly with temperature.
•

For both extrinsic and intrinsic mechanisms the conductivity is zero at

T=0K
•

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2. Diffusion Current
The directional movement of charge carriers due to their
concentration gradient produces a component of current known as
•

diffusion current.

It is encountered only in semiconductors and is normally absent in

conductors.
•

With no applied voltage, if the number of charge carriers (either holes

or electrons) in one region of a semiconductor is less compared to the
•

rest of the region, then there exists a concentration gradient.

As a result, the carriers tend to move gradually or diffuse from the

region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration.
•

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2. Diffusion Current
This process is called diffusion and electric current produced due to
this process is called diffusion current.
•

This process continues until all the carriers are evenly distributed
through the material.
•

Hence when there is no applied voltage, the net diffusion current will
be zero.
•

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2. Diffusion Current
• In general, the hole diffusion current density is given by:
Jp(diff) = − qDh∇p
• Where Dh is the hole diffusion constant and ∇p is the gradient of p
• Similarly, the electron diffusion current density is given by
Jn(diff) = + qDe∇n

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Total Current
The total current in a semiconductor = the electron and hole drift
currents + the electron and hole diffusion currents.
Jtotal = Jdrift + Jdiffusion

Jtotal = Jdrift + Jp(diff) + Jn(diff)

Jtotal = σE + q(De∇n − Dh∇p)

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Carrier Lifetime /Mean Lifetime
Because hole-electron pairs are continually created by thermal
agitation of a semiconductor lattice, it might seem that the number of
•

holes and free electrons would continually increase with time.

This does not happen because free electrons are continually

recombining with holes.
•

At any temperature, a stable state is reached when the creation rate

of hole-electron pairs is equal to the recombination rate.
•

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Carrier Lifetime /Mean Lifetime
The mean lifetime 𝜏n of a free electron is the average time that the
electron exists in the free state before recombination.
•

• The mean lifetime 𝜏p for the hole is defined similarly.

In the intrinsic semiconductor, 𝜏n is equal to 𝜏p because the number of

free electrons must be equal to the number of holes.
•

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Terminologies
Donor Majority carrier
Impurity atom that increases n The most abundant carrier

Minority carrier
Acceptor the least abundant carrier
Impurity atom that increases p
Intrinsic semiconductor
n = p = ni
N-type material
Contains more electrons than Extrinsic semiconductor
holes Doped semiconductor

P-type material
Contains more holes than
electrons 51
 In its pure state, semiconductor material is an excellent insulator.
Summary
•

• The commonly used semiconductor material is silicon.

Semiconductor materials can be doped with other atoms to add or

subtract electrons.
•

• An N-type semiconductor material has extra electrons.

In an N-type semiconductor, conduction is mainly due to electrons

(negative charges).
•

• Positive charges (holes) are the minority carriers.

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Summary
A P-type semiconductor material has a shortage of electrons with
vacancies called holes.
•

In a P-type semiconductor, conduction is mainly due to holes (positive

charges).
•

• Negative charges (electrons) are the minority carriers.

The heavier the doping, the greater the conductivity or the lower the
resistance.
•

By controlling the doping of silicon the semiconductor material can be

made as conductive as desired.
•
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Thanks!
Any questions?

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