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Operational Amplifier

The document discusses the use of operational amplifiers (op amps) and potential dividers in electronic circuits, highlighting their applications in producing reference voltages and signal conditioning. It explains the basic functioning of op amps, their configurations (inverting and non-inverting), and their role in various applications such as buffers, differential amplifiers, and D/A conversion. Limitations of passive circuits are noted, emphasizing the advantages of using op amps for improved signal processing.

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Silasri Balakrishnan
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3 views

Operational Amplifier

The document discusses the use of operational amplifiers (op amps) and potential dividers in electronic circuits, highlighting their applications in producing reference voltages and signal conditioning. It explains the basic functioning of op amps, their configurations (inverting and non-inverting), and their role in various applications such as buffers, differential amplifiers, and D/A conversion. Limitations of passive circuits are noted, emphasizing the advantages of using op amps for improved signal processing.

Uploaded by

Silasri Balakrishnan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Op Amp

Reminder -Potential Dividers in Practice

• Potential Dividers are a heavily used tool for producing reference


voltages
• They can also be used to create a varying voltage from a resistive
sensor
• In theory any values of resistor can be used as long as they produce
the correct output
• If resistance is too low then:
• Too much current will flow
• Larger wires will be needed
• Power consumption will be excessive
Simulation Example
Effect of fixed resistor value
Effect of fixed resistor value
Alternate configuration
Effect of Potential Divider Configuration
Limitations

• A circuit such as this is considered to be ‘passive’


• There are significant limitations to what can be achieved
with a given supply
• An improved range of signal conditioning process can be
achieved with an operational amplifier
What is an “Op Amp”

• Before digital electronic technology, computers were built


to electronically perform calculations by using voltages and
currents to represent numerical quantities.
• In analogue electronics a large proportion of circuits are
based on the operational amplifier (shortened to op
amp).
• Op amps can be “programmed” to perform many functions.
Op Amps

• One of the most common


op amps is the 741.
• It is available as an
integrated circuit costing
in its basic form only a few
pence.
How do they work?

• The op amp output depends on the voltages applied to the


+ve and –ve input terminals.
• If the +ve input is greater than the –ve input the output will be
positive.
• If the –ve input is greater than the +ve input the output will be
negative.
• If the two inputs are equal the output will be the zero.
Basic Ideal Op Amp Assumptions

• No current flows into


either input terminal due
to infinite input
impedance
• The gain of the amplifier is
infinite
The Op Amp

• Dozens of different op amps are available with different


combinations of characteristics but all op amps have the
five terminals shown below.
• The inputs shown by the negative and positive signs are
known as the inverting input and the non-inverting inputs.
• The block schematic of an op amp is shown:
The Op Amp

• The +Vs and –Vs denotes the positive and negative supply.
• Typical voltages are ±9V, ±15V or ±18V.
• The power supply terminals are often left out of circuit
diagrams simplify the layout.
• Vo is the output terminal
Example
Output Characteristics
Explanation

• The operational amplifier has infinite gain.


• Thus the output is infinity x (V+ - V-)
• If the difference is positive then the output will be + infinity
• If the difference is negative then the output will be –infinity
• In a real op-amp, an infinite output voltage is impossible
• The output will ‘clip’ as it closes in on the supply voltages.
• What is the effect of changing the fixed resistor?
• What is the effect of changing the value of the variable resistor?
Comparator

• In this configuration the op amp is functioning as a


comparator.
• The symbol for a comparator looks like that of a logic gate
BUT its inputs are analogue, not digital
Example of a comparator based system
System Operation

• First potentiometer determines minimum acceptable height


System Operation

• Second potentiometer determines maximum acceptable height


System Operation

• Output is only accepted if both comparators indicate that


the size of the object is acceptable.
• What is the flaw?
Calibration

• This system requires manual Calibration


• From Wiktionary -Calibrate:
• To check or adjust by comparison with a standard.
• To mark the scale of a measuring instrument
• Is this a problem?
Calibration

• This system requires manual Calibration


• From Wiktionary -Calibrate:
• To check or adjust by comparison with a standard.
• To mark the scale of a measuring instrument
• Is this a problem?

• Difficult to adjust to different size pieces


• No means of ‘remembering’ or noting previous values
• Prone to calibration being ‘interfered’ with
Limitations

• A circuit such as this is considered to be ‘passive’


• There are significant limitations to what can be achieved
with a given supply
• An improved range of signal conditioning process can be
achieved with an operational amplifier
Op Amps and Feedback

• During the last example we examined the behaviour of an op-amp


operating in open loop configuration.
• As you should have seen, this means that only two outputs are
possible.
• This is rather restrictive and in many applications we require the ability
to read a continuous range of values from our sensors.
• In order to achieve this we need to use our op-amp in closed-loop
configuration.
• The benefit of this is that we can control the gain applied to the
incoming signal.
Feedback

• •When in closed-loop
configuration a voltage
divider is used to connect
the output back to the
inverting input (V-).
• •When in closed loop
configuration the op amp’s
output will move to equalise
the voltages at the two
inputs.
Analysis

• We can analyse this circuit using the basic circuit theory


covered last year:
• Ohms law: V = IR
• Kirchoff’s Voltage Law: The voltages in any closed loop
must sum to zero
• Kirchoff’s Current Law: the currents at any node must sum
to zero
The Inverting Amplifier

• Remember –our assumptions are:


• Infinite Gain –this means that when
negative feedback is applied the output
will settle to whatever value equalises the
input
• Infinite Input Impedance –so now
current will flow to either input
The Inverting Amplifier

• If in the circuit shown we make the


assumption that there is no significant
amplifier input current, then an ideal
circuit analysis can be made:
The Inverting Amplifier

• Note that the negative sign means that the signal is inverted

• Values of resistances are normally between 1KΩand 100KΩ.


• Why?
The Inverting Amplifier

• Note that the negative sign means that the signal is inverted

• Values of resistances are normally between 1KΩand 100KΩ.


• Why?
• To reduce power consumption
• To maintain input impedance
Example
Answer
The Non-Inverting Amplifier

• Using the same assumptions as the Inverting Amplifier we


can analyse this circuit
The Non-Inverting Amplifier
The Non-Inverting Amplifier

• Note that there is no inversion with this amplifier however


the minimum gain we can achieve is always greater than 1.
Example
Answer
Applications of Operational Amplifiers

• Buffers amplifiers
• AKA Voltage Follower
• Output follows input exactly
• Used to match impedances –e.g. to allow a more significant
current to be drawn from a potential divider without
affecting its behaviour
Applications of Operational Amplifiers

• Differential Amplifier
• Output is directly proportional to difference in the inputs
Example
Example
Answer
Summing Amplifiers
Example
Answer
D/A Conversion

• D/A conversion is an important interface process for


converting digital signals to analog (linear) signals. An
example is a voice signal that is digitized for storage,
processing, or transmission and must be changed back into
an approximation of the original audio signal in order to
drive a speaker.
An R/2R ladder DAC
More Applications

• Integrators
• Differentiators

• All relatively simple circuits that can be used to perform


analogue calculations with analogue signals
Op Amps and Signal Conditioning

• Op amps can be used to match the range and properties of


a signal to the requirements of the subsequent stage
• This can improve the resolution, range etc of the overall
system.

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