Math 51 –

Calculus for civil

engineering 1

ENGR. MARY CRIS L. AYING-

TAMPOS
INSTRUCTOR
PRE-FINAL
 V. APPLICATION OF THE DERIVATIVE
LESSON CONTENT:
 4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE
 4.2 FURTHER TOOLS: ROLLE’S THEOREM; MEAN VALUE THEOREM
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVE
 4.5 THE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL
 4.6 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA
 4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROXIMATION
 4.8 DIFFERENTIAL NOTATION
 4.10 RELATED RATES
 4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS
OF THE DERIVATIVE
 4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE
DERIVATIVE
As we learned earlier, a closed interval along the x- axis is an interval which
includes its endpoints, an open interval is one which excludes the endpoints, and a half-open
interval contains one endpoint but not the other.
THEOREM 1: ( EXTREME VALUE THEOREM) If f is a continuous function defined on the
closed interval [a,b], there is (at least) one point in [a,b] (call it x 1) where f has a largest value,
and there is (at least) one point (call it x2) where f has a smallest value.
This theorem is fairly clear intuitively if we think of a continuous function as one
with no breaks or gaps. As we move along the curve from the point corresponding to x = a to the
point corresponding to x=b, there must be a place where the curve has a high point (called the
maximum value) and there must also be a place where it has a low point (called the minimum
value).

Two Principal Hypotheses of Theorem 1:

1. The interval [a,b] is closed
2. The function f is continuous
  4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE
DERIVATIVE
Suppose the assumption that the interval is closed
is replaced by the assumption that the interval is open. The
function f(x) = 1/x is continuous on the open interval 0 < x < 1
(Fig.1), and it has no maximum value in this open interval. A more
subtle example is given by the function f(x) = x 2 defined in the
open interval 0 < x < 2 (Fig.2). This function has no maximum or
minimum value on the open interval but does have a maximum of
4 and a or minimum of 0 on the closed interval. This situation
comes about because f(x) = x2 is continuous on the closed
interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2. In the first example, the function 1/x is
continuous on 0 < x < 1 but not on the closed interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Even making the interval half-open is not good enough, since the
function 1/x is continuous on the half-open interval 0 < x ≤ 1 and
still has no maximum value there. The second example, f(x) = x 2,
is continuous on the half-open interval 0 < x ≤ 2 and does not
have a minimum in this half-open interval.
 4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE
DERIVATIVEThe second hypothesis, that of continuity, is also
essential. The function
FIG.3
f(x) = , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, x ≠1
f(x) = 2.
is continuous except at x =1 (Figure 3). As the
graph clearly shows, the function has no maximum and no
minimum on the closed interval [0,2].
A second, more sophisticated, example is the function :

x2 + 1, 0 ≤ x < 1
f(x) = { FIG.4
x – 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

whose graph is shown in Fig. 4. this function is continuous except at

x = 1, where its minimum occur with the value zero.
 4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE
DERIVATIVE
There is no point on the closed interval [0,2] where it has a maximum value. Note
that the function gets close to the value 2 as x 1 from the left. But there is no point where it
actually has the value 2.
If f is continuous on [a,b], with its maximum value M at x1 and its minimum value
m at x2, then Theorem 1 shows that

m ≤ f (x) ≤ M
for all x in [a,b]. We could equally well write instead of M and instead of m. In words, Theorem 1
states that
“A function which is continuous on a closed interval takes on its maximum
and minimum value.”

THEOREM 2: Suppose that f is continuous on an interval and takes on its maximum (or minimum
at some point which is in the interior of the interval. If exists, then:
 4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE
DERIVATIVE
PROOF: We prove the theorem for the case where is a maximum. The proof
for a minimum is similar. If is the maximum value, then

for every possible h, both positive or negative. The only restriction is that
x0+h must be in the interval in order for f(x 0 + h) to have a meaning. We can
also write (see Fig.5)

(1)
If h is positive we may divide by h to get
≤ 0, h>0
Taking the one sided limit as h 0+ , we conclude that
≤0
(2)
If h is negative, the inequality (1) reverses when we divide by h, so that
≥ 0, h < 0
 4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE
DERIVATIVE
Taking the one sided limit as h 0 , we conclude that
-

≥ 0 (3)
Since the ordinary limit (two-sided limit) exists as h
tends to zero, the one-sided limits and are equal. Examining (2) and (3),
we see that they can only be equal if f’(x0) = 0, which is what we wished
to prove.

Discussion: The important hypotheses in Theorem 2 are (1) that x0 is

an interior point, and (2) that f has a derivative at x0. If the first
hypothesis is neglected the theorem is false, as is shown by the
example f(x) = x2 on the interval 1≤ x ≤ 2 (Fig.6). The maximum occurs
at x =2 (not an interior point) and the minimum occurs at x =1 (not an
interior point). The derivative of f(x) =x2 is f’(x) = 2x, and this is different
from zero throughout the interval [1,2]. The fact that x 0 is interior to the
interval is important; whether the interval is open, closed, or half-open is
irrelevant.
4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE
Example: f(x) = x3 –x , -1 < x < 1
has a maximum at the point (- , ) and a minimum at ( , - )
(see Fig. 7). To find these points we first get the derivatives of f :
f’(x) = 3x2 -1
Then setting this equal to zero and solving for x, we obtain 3x 2 -1 = 0,
X =, - . Substitution of the x values into the original expression yields the
desired points.

The second hypothesis in Theorem 2, namely that f has a derivative at

x0, is also essential, as is shown by the following example. Let
x2 + 2x- , 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
f(x) = {
-x2 + 2x +1, 2 ≤ x ≤ 3
4.1 TOOLS FOR APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE
This function is continuous on the interval 1 ≤ x ≤ 3,
since both expressions approach the same value at x = 2. as Fig. 8
shows, however, there is a “corner” at x = 2, and the derivative does not
exist at this point. Nevertheless, the point P (2,1) is exactly where the
maximum occurs.

The derivative may not exist by virtue of being infinite at

a maximum or minimum point. The relation x2/3 + y2/3 = 1 for -1 ≤ x ≤ 1,
has the graph shown in Fig. 9. The portion of the graph above the x axis
represents a function. The maximum occurs at x = 0 and at x = 0 we
have y = 1. We can compute the derivative implicitly and obtain

x-1/3 + y-1/3 = 0 or =-

and we see that this tends to infinity as x tends to zero. Therefore there
is no derivative at the maximum point.
 4.2 FURTHER TOOLS:
ROLLE’S THEOREM; MEAN
VALUE THEOREM
 4.2 FURTHER TOOLS: ROLLE’S THEOREM; MEAN VALUE THEOREM
THEOREM 3: ( ROLLE’S THEOREM) Suppose that f is continuous for a ≤ x ≤ b and that f’(x)
exists for each x between a and b. If
f(a) = f(b) = 0
then there must be (at least) one point, call it x0, between a and b such that
f’(x0) = 0
PROOF: Three possibilities
Case 1: (The trivial case.) f(x) = 0 for all x between a and b; then f’(x) = 0
for all x, x0 can be chosen to be any value between a and b.
FIG.10
Case 2: f(x) is positive somewhere between a and b. Then the maximum
of f is positive, and we choose x0 (Theorem 1) to be a place where this
maximum occurs. (See Fig. 10a) According to Theorem 2 of the previous
section, f’(x0) = 0, since x0 must be interior to the interval.
Case 3: f(x) is negative somewhere between a and b. Then the minimum
of f is negative, and we choose x0 to be a place where this minimum FIG.10
occurs. (See Fig. 10b) According to Theorem 2 of the previous section,
f’(x0) =0.
 4.2 FURTHER TOOLS: ROLLE’S THEOREM; MEAN VALUE THEOREM
Since every function which is zero at a and b must fall
into one of the three cases, the theorem is proved.
Figure 10(c) shows that a function may fall into both
Case 2 and Case 3, and Fig. 10(d) illustrates the possibility of several
choices for x0 even though it satisfies only Case 2.

FIG.10
Remember! : We can state Rolle’s Theorem in a simple way: If a
differentiable curve crosses the x axis twice there must be a point
between successive crossings at which the line tangent to the curve is
parallel to the x axis.

THEOREM 4: (Mean Value Theorem) Suppose that f is continuous for FIG.10

a ≤ x ≤ b and that f’(x) exists for each x between a and b. Then there is
an x0 between a and b (that is, a < x0< b such that
f’(x0) =
 4.2 FURTHER TOOLS: ROLLE’S THEOREM; MEAN VALUE THEOREM
Figure 11 shows a typical function f between the points
a and b. the point P has coordinates (a, f(a)) and Q has coordinates (b,
f(b)). We construct the straight line through PQ and calculate its slope.
We know that the slope m is the difference of the y values over the
difference of the x values, that is,
m=
This is exactly the same expression that occurs in the
statement of the Mean Value Theorem. The theorem says there is a
point (x0, f(x0)) on the curve where the slope has the value m; that is,
the tangent line at (x0, f(x0)) is parallel to the line through PQ. Glancing
at the figure, we see that there must be such a point.

PROOF OF THEOREM 4: The equation of the line through PQ (according to the two-point formula for
the equation of a straight line) is:
y – f(a) = (x - a).
 4.2 FURTHER TOOLS: ROLLE’S THEOREM; MEAN VALUE THEOREM
We construct the function
F(x) = f(x) - (x - a) – f(a)
By straight substitution with x = a and then x = b, we find
F(a) = f(a) - (a - a) – f(a) = 0,
F(b) = f(b) - (b - a) – f(a) = 0.
Therefore F(x) satisfies all the hypotheses of Rolle’s Theorem. There must be a value x0
such that F’(x0) = 0. But (by differentiation) we see that
F’(x) = f’(x) -
This implies that
f’(x0) =
which is what we wished to prove.
 4.2 FURTHER TOOLS: ROLLE’S THEOREM; MEAN VALUE THEOREM
PRACTICE PROBLEMS:
Example 1: Given that:
f(x) = and a = 1 , b = 2,
find all values x0 in the interval 1< x< 2 such that

f’(x0) =

Example 2: Given that f(x) = x3 – 2x2 +3x -2 and a = 0, b = 2, find all possible values for x 0
in the interval 0 < x< 2 such that:
f’(x0) =

Example 3: Given the function

f(x) = and a = 1 , b = 3,
discuss the validity of the Mean Value Theorem.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION: A function f is said to be increasing on the interval I if f(x2) >

f(x1), whenever x2 > x1, so long as both x1 and x2 are in I. It is decreasing if
f(x2) < f(x1), whenever x2>x1 (Fig.12). The interval I may contain one endpoint,
both endpoints, or neither endpoint.

DEFINITION: A function f is said to have a relative maximum at x0 if there is

some interval with x0 as an interior point, such that f (x0) is the true maximum of f
in this interval. Similarly, it has a relative minimum at x1, if there is some interval
with x1 as an interior point, such that f (x1) is the true minimum of f in this interval.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
As provided in Fig. 13, which shows a typical
situation. The function f has its maximum on [a,b] at x 0, a
point which is a relative maximum. However, f has a relative
maximum at x2, although f(x2) is not the maximum of the
function on [a,b]. The function f has a relative minimum at x 1.
the true minimum on [a,b] occurs at b. However, f does not
have a relative minimum at b, since the definition for relative
minimum is not satisfied there.
THEOREM 5: If f is continuous on an interval I and if f’(x) > 0 for each x in the interior of I,
then f is increasing on I .

PROOF: We apply the Mean Value Theorem to two points x 1, x2 in I. we find that
f(x2) –f(x1) = f’ (x0) (x2 - x1),
Where x0 is between x1 and x2 and hence interior to I. For x2 > x1 and f’ positive, we obtain
f’(x0) (x2 - x1) > 0, and so f(x2) – f(x1) > 0. This means, by definition, that f is increasing.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

COROLLARY: If f is continuous on I and if f’(x) < 0 for each x interior to I,

then f is decreasing on I .

Theorem 5 is useful for graphing; we can find out whether

the graph of a function is rising or falling by observing whether the
derivative is positive or negative. This theorem helps us find the peaks
and troughs.
There is a complication in using Theorem 2 because,
although the derivative of a function is zero at a maximum or minimum
point ( assuming the derivative exists there), the converse may not hold
true. For example, the function f(x) = x 3 (Fig.14) has a derivative f’(x) =
3x2, which is zero at x = 0. But (0,0) is neither a maximum nor a minimum
point of the function. Thus the knowledge that the derivative of a function
vanishes at a certain point is not enough to guarantee that the function
has a maximum or minimum there.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
DEFINITIONS: A critical value of a function f is a value of x where f’(x) = 0. A critical
point of a function f is a point (x, f(x)) on the graph corresponding to the critical value
x.
A critical point occurs at any relative maximum or minimum point of a
function which has a derivative at that point. However, the function f(x) = x 3 has a critical
point at (0,0) but this point is neither a maximum nor a minimum of the function.
Suppose a function f and its derivative f' are continuous. If the equation f
'(x) = 0 has only a finite number of solutions, we may use Theorem 5 and its corollary as
an aid in graphing. To do so, we let x 1, x2, . . . xn be all the values of x for which f'(x) = 0,
arranged in order of increasing size. In each of the intervals (-, x1), (x1, x2), (x2 , x3), ..., (x
n-1, xn), (xn , +), the quantity f'(x) must remain either positive throughout or negative
throughout. This fact is a result of Theorem 6, stated below without proof. As a result, to
determine the sign of f'(x) in any one of the intervals, we need only find its sign at a
single interior point in that interval.
THEOREM 6: Suppose f is continuous on an interval I and f is not zero at any point of I.
Then f is either positive on all of I or negative on all of I.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

This theorem is intuitively clear when we graph a continuous function. If f

starts out positive, (i.e., above the x axis) and then becomes negative, (i.e., goes below the
x axis) it can do so only by crossing the axis. The place where it crosses the x axis is a
point where f is zero.
Example 1:
Study the derivative of the function
f(x) =
and use the resulting knowledge to sketch the graph of the
function.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
THEOREM 7: (First Derivative Test)
i) If f is increasing (f’ > 0) on some interval to the left of x 0 with x0 as endpoint of this interval,
and if f is decreasing (f’ < 0) on some interval to the right of x 0 (with x0 as endpoint), then f has
a relative maximum at x0 if it is continuous there.
ii) If f is decreasing (f’ < 0) in some interval to the left of x 0 with x0 as endpoint of this interval,
and if f is increasing ( f ' > 0) in some interval to the right of x 0 (with x0 as endpoint), then f has
a relative minimum at x0 if it is continuous there.

REMARKS: If f has a derivative at x0, then the

derivative will be zero. However, we include
the possibility that there may be a cusp or a
corner. Figure 16 shows various possibilities.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

Example 2:
Discuss the function defined by

for relative maxima and minima, and determine

the intervals in which is increasing and those in
which is decreasing. Sketch the graph.
 4.3 APPLICATIONS TO GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS

Example 3:
Discuss the function defined by

for relative maxima and minima, and determine where

is increasing and where it is decreasing. Sketch the
graph.
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING
THE SECOND DERIVATIVES
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVES

DEFINITIONS: If, at each point of an interval, the graph of a function f always remains
above the line tangent to the curve at this point, we say that the curve is concave upward
on the interval (see Fig. 20). If the curve always remains below its tangent line, we say it is
concave downward (see Fig.2l).

RECALL: The equation of the line tangent to a curve. At any value of x 0 the function f has
value f(x0) and the slope of the curve at this point is f’(x 0). The equation of a line through the
point (x0, f(x0)) with slope f’(x0) is, according to the point-slope formula,
y - f(x0) = f’(x0)(x-x0) or y = f(x0) + f’(x0)(x-x0)
This is the tangent line.
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVES

THEOREM 8: (CONCAVITY TEST) Assume that f has a second derivative on an interval I.

a.) If f ”(x) > 0 for all x interior to I, then the curve is concave
upward on I.
b.) If f ”(x) < 0 for all x interior to I, then the curve is concave
PROOF:on
downward ToI.prove (a), we must show that the curve lies above
the tangent line at any point. Let x 0 be any (fixed) point in I (see
Fig. 22).The tangent line at x0has equation
y = f(x0) + f’(x0)(x-
x0)
and we therefore have to establish (for all x in I) the inequality
f(x) ≥ f(x0) + f’(x0)
(x-x0)
If x = x0, this becomes f (x0) ≥ f (x0), which is true. If x is some
other value, say x1, then we can apply the Mean value Theorem
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVES
f’(x) =
where x is between x0 and x1. We have two possibilities: (1) x 1 > x0, and (2) x1 < x0. In Case
(1) we write the Mean Value Theorem in the form

f(x1) = f(x0) + f’(x)(x1-x0) (1)

Since f " > 0 by hypothesis, we know from Theorem 5 that f' is increasing on I. If x 1 > x0 then
x1 > x > x0 and
f’(x) > f ‘(x0)
we multiply this last inequality through by the positive quantity ( x 1 - x0 ) to get
f’(x)(x1-x0) > f’(x0)(x1-x0)
And therefore, by substitution in Eq.(1), we obtain
f(x1) > f(x0)+ f’(x0)(x1-x0),
which is what we wished to show.
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVES

In Case (2), since x0 > x, we must have f'(x0) > f'(x). But now we multiply
through by the negative number (x1, - x0), which reverses the inequality, giving
f’(x) (x1 - x0) > f’(x0)(x1 - x0),
as before, and therefore, using (1)
f(x1) > f(x0)+ f’(x0)(x1 - x0),
THEOREM 9: (SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST) Assume that f has a second derivative, that f “
is continuous, and that x0 is critical value (f ‘(x0) = 0). Then :
a.) If f “ (x0) > 0, f has a relative minimum at x 0.
b.) If f “ (x0) < 0, f has a relative maximum at x 0.
c.) If f “ (x0) = 0, the test fails.
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVES

PROOF: To prove part (a), we see from Theorem 8 that the curve is concave upward
and must lie above the tangent line at x 0. But this line is horizontal, since f‘(x 0) = 0.
Therefore f (x0) must be a minimum value. The proof of (b) is the same. Part (c) is added
for the sake of completeness.
Example 1:
Discuss the function
f(x) = x3 - x2 + 9x – 4
for relative maxima and minima. Sketch the graph.
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVES

DEFINITION: A point on a curve is a point of inflection if f “(x0) = 0 at this point and if

the graph is concave upward on one side and concave downward on the other.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS ! ! !

Example 2: Discuss the function

f(x) = x4 – x2
for relative maxima, relative minima, and points of
inflection. Sketch the graph.
 4.4 APPLICATIONS USING THE SECOND DERIVATIVES

Example 3:
Discuss the function

f(x) = x4/3 + 4x1/3

for relative maxima, relative minima, and points of
inflection. Sketch the graph.
 4.5 THE MAXIMUM AND
MINIMUM VALUES OF A
FUNCTION ON AN
INTERVAL
 4.5 THE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES
OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL

In the preceding sections we studied ways of

finding relative maxima and minima of a function. One of these
relative maxima may be the true maximum of the function, or it
may not be. As Fig.29 shows, the function exhibited has a relative
maximum at P and a relative minimum at Q. As we go off to the
right, however, the function gets larger than the value at P, and as
we go off to the left, the function gets smaller than the value at Q.
Suppose that we look at the above function only on some interval
[a,b], as shown in Fig.29. Then the maximum occurs at b and is
f(b), while the minimum occurs at a and is f(a). lf [a, b’] were the
interval of interest, as shown, then the maximum of f on [a,b’] is at
P, while the minimum is at a. Further, on the interval [a',b']the
maximum is at P, the minimum at Q.
 4.5 THE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES
OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL
DEFINITION: Let f be a continuous function defined on the closed interval a x b. The
maximum value f takes on in this interval is called the absolute maximum of f on [a, b].
The minimum value f takes on in the interval [a, b] is called the absolute minimum of f on
[a,b].
To obtain the maximum and minimum of a continuous function on an
interval [a,b], we employ the following procedure (which is based on Theorem 5 and the
First Derivative Test):
RULE: a.) Find the relative maximum and minimum values of f.
b.) Find the value of the function at each of the endpoints.
The largest of the values of (a) and (b) is the absolute
maximum. The smallest value is the absolute minimum.
Example 1: Given the function
f(x) = x3 + x2 - 2x
find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum on the interval [-3,4].
 4.5 THE MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES
OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL

Example 1:
Given the function
f(x) = x3 +
x2 - 2x
find the absolute maximum and absolute
minimum on the interval [-3,4].
 4.6 APPLICATIONS OF
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
4.6 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA
ELEMENTARY GEOMETRIC FORMULAS:
i.) Circle of radius r, Circumference = 2r , Area = r 2
ii.) Circular Sector, Area = r2 , being the central angle measured in radians.
iii.) Trapezoid of height h and bases b and B, Area = h (b + B).
iv.) Right Circular Cylinder of height h, radius of base r, Volume = r 2h
Lateral Surface Area = 2rh
v.) Right Circular Cone of height h, radius of base r, Volume = r 2h
Lateral Surface Area = r L, where L = .
vi.) Sphere of radius r, Volume = r3 . Surface Area = 4r2
4.6 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA
ELEMENTARY GEOMETRIC FORMULAS:
4.6 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA
PRACTICE PROBLEMS!!!!!
Example 1: A man has a stone wall alongside a field. He
has 1200 meters of fencing material and he wishes to
make a rectangular pen, using the wall as one side.
What should the dimensions of the pen be in order to
enclose the largest possible area?

Example 2: A rectangular box with an open top is to be

made in the following way. A piece of tin 10 cm by 16 cm
has a small square cut from each corner.(shaded portion
in Fig. 32) and then the edges (dashed lines) are folded
vertically. What should be the size of the squares cut out
if the box is to have as large a volume as possible?
 4.6 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA
PRACTICE PROBLEMS!!!!!
Example 3: The sum of one number and three times a second number is 60. Among the
possible numbers which satisfy this condition, find the pair whose product is as large as
possible.
STEPS INVOLVING MAXIMA AND MINIMA PROBLEMS:

Step 1: Draw a figure when appropriate.

Step 2: Assign a letter to each of the quantities mentioned in the problem.
Step 3: Select the quantity which is to be made a maximum or minimum and express it
as a function of the other quantities.
Step 4: Use the information in the problem to eliminate all quantities but one so as to
have a function of one variable. Determine the possible domain of this
function.
Step 5: Use the methods of Sections 4 and 5 to get the maximum or minimum.
4.6 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Example 4: Find the dimensions of the right circular

cylinder of maximum volume which can be inscribed in a
sphere of radius 12.

Example 5: A lighthouse is at point A, 4km offshore from

the nearest point O of a straight beach; a store is at point
B, 4 km down the beach from O. If the lighthouse keeper
can row 4 km/hr and walk 5 km/hr, how should she
proceed in order to get from the lighthouse to the store in
the least possible time?
 4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL.
APPROXIMATION
4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROXIMATION

DEFINITION: Let D be a set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y), i.e., D is a set in R 2.
Let E be a set of real numbers. A function f from D to E is a correspondence that assigns
to each element (x, y) of D a unique number z where z is a number in E. The set D is the
domain of f and the set E is the range of f .

DEFINITION: Consider a collection of ordered pairs (A,w), in which the elements A are
themselves ordered pairs of real numbers and the elements w are real numbers. If no two
members of the collection have the same item A as a first element- i.e., if it can never
happen that there are two members (A1,w1) and (A 1,w2) with w1 w2 - then we call this
collection a function on R2. The totality of possible ordered pairs A is called the domain of
the function. The totality of possible values for w is called the range of the function.

DEFINITION: We designate by df the differential of f which is a function of two variables

given by the formula
df (x , h) = f’(x) • h
4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROXIMATION

In this definition, the symbol df is considered to be a single entity and does

not mean d times f. Since df is the symbol for a function on R 2, we recognize df (x, h) as the
symbol for the value of the function when x and h are substituted into the right side of the
above formula.
Example 1: Given that f(x) = x2 (1-x2 )1/2 find the formula of df. Also, find the value of df (, 3)

Earlier (in Chapter 2, Section 2) we introduced the symbol f by defining

f = f (x + h) – f (x).
We did not say so at the time, but the reader can now see that f is a function
on R2. That is, we may write f = f (x, h).
It will help our understanding to compare the functions df and f . We can do
this geometrically, as shown in Fig. 36. where P represents a point on the graph of y = f(x).
If h has any value,*then the point (x + h, f(x + h)) is
4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROXIMATION
on the graph and is denoted by Q. We see that
f (x,h) = height SQ
The tangent at P intersects the line through Q and S at R, and
we know that SR /Ps is the slope of this line, or simply f ‘(x).
Since PS = h, we have
df (x,h) = height SR
This tells us that the height RQ is just the difference between
f – df = height RQ
Also we see from the graph that as h tends to zero (thus implying that the point Q slides along
the curve to P), the difference between f and df tends to zero. In fact, we have
=0
The proof of this statement is easy. We know from the definition of derivative that
f ‘(x) as h 0
4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROXIMATION
On the other hand, df/h is the derivative f ‘(x). Therefore
= - = f ‘(x) – f ‘(x) = 0
If h is small, f and df must be close together. The function f measures the
change in f as we go from one point to another. The differential df can be used as a good
approximation for f if the points are near each other. We write
df f
for this approximation.

Example 2: Given that f(x) = 1/x, compute df and f when x =1 and h is 0.1, 0.01, 0.001. Do
this to four significant figures.

Example 3: Use the differential to compute approximately.

 4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROXIMATION

If a quantity is being measured and the true value is a but there is an error of
an amount h, we define the proportional error as:
and the percentage error as: • 100%

Suppose that f is a function and we wish to find f(a), the value a to be

determined by measurement. This measurement is not precise (measurements never are)
and there is an error h in measuring the value a. The error in the function f is f = f (a + h) - f
(a) and the proportional error in the function is simply:
=

However, in such computations, we conveniently use the approximation to the

proportional error: =
The approximate percentage error is then found by multiplying by 100.
4.7 THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROXIMATION

Example 4: The radius of a sphere is found by measurement to be 3 cm, but there is a

possible error of 0.03 cm in the measurement. Find, approximately, the error and
percentage error in the value of the surface area of the sphere that might occur because of
the error in the radius.

Solution: The surface area S is given by the formula S = 4r 2, and for r = 3 the area is 36
cm2. The error is approximated by dS = S‘(r)h = 8rh. The quantity h = 0.03, and so the
approximate error is
dS = 8(3)(0.03) = 0.72cm2
The approximate proportional error is: =
= = 0.02,
and the approximate percentage error is 2 %.
 4.8 DIFFERENTIAL NOTATION
4.8 DIFFERENTIAL NOTATION
Let f be a function of one variable. Writing y = f(x), we recall that in
Chapter 2, Section 4 the symbol introduced as an alternate notation for the derivative f
'(x). At this point we identify dx with the number h used in the definition of the
differential, and we identify dy with the differential df. That is, setting
dx = h and dy
= df ,
we obtain the equivalent formula for the differential
dy = f ‘(x) dx
We call dx the differential of x and dy the differential of y. lt is important to
observe that dx is an independent variable and dy, which is defined by the above formula is
not. As expected, the ratio is the derivative whenever dx 0, and the use of this notation for
the derivative is justified in terms of differentials.
Suppose that y =
f(x) is a function and that x = g(t) is a second function with the range of g in the domain of f.
Then we may consider y as a function of t by writing:
y = f [ g(t) ].
4.8 DIFFERENTIAL NOTATION
To get the derivative of f [ g(t) ] we apply the Chain Rule to obtain:
f ‘[ g(t) ] g ‘(t)
We also have the following formulas for differentials:
dy = f ‘(x) g ‘(t) dt
The chain Rule may now be expressed in terms of differentials. If dx 0
and
dt 0, then:
= •
Differentials may be multiplied, divided (whenever different from zero),
added, and subtracted. One differential divided by another may be thought of as a
derivative. We can now write all the elementary rules for derivatives as differentials.
Since they become derivative formulas merely by division by dx, there is really not
much new in them.
4.8 DIFFERENTIAL NOTATION
If c is constant, dc = 0 and d(cu) = c du. Also,
d (u + v) = du + dv
d (u • v) = u dv + v du
d () =
d(un ) = n un-1 du

PRACTICE PROBLEMS!!!!!

Example 1: Given that y = (x2 + 2x + 1 )3 and x = 3t2 + 2t – 1, find dy/dt.

Example 2: Given that y = /(2x -3 )find dy.

Example 3: Suppose that u and v are functions defined on R1 and that they satisfy the relation
u2 + 2uv2 + v3 – 6 = 0
Find dv/du.
4.8 DIFFERENTIAL NOTATION

If y= f (x), there are now two symbols for the derivative: f '(x) and dy/dx. These are the most
prevalent symbols, commonly used in texts and papers on various related subjects.
Another symbol, not quite so common but nevertheless used often, is Dxf. The only
notation we learned so far for the second derivative is f "(x). The expression
,
which is read: d second y by dx second, is a classical one for the second derivative. The
numerator, d2y, and the denominator, dx2, have absolutely no meaning by themselves. (In
elementary calculus there is no such thing as the differential of a differential.) We just use
d2y/ dx2 as an equivalent for f “(x). Similarly, third, fourth, and fifth derivatives are written
, ,
and so on. In each case, the expression is to be thought of not as a fraction dividing two
quantities but is an inseparable symbol representing the appropriate derivative.
 4.10 RELATED RATES
4.10 RELATED RATES
In Chapter 2, Section 5, we discussed motion along a straight line and
developed the ideas of velocity and speed. We learned that if a particle moves in a
straight line so that the distance traveled, s, depends on the time t, according to some
law s = f(t), the velocity is obtained by finding the derivative f '(t). We can also write
f ‘(t) =

The velocity may be thought of as the rate of change of distance with respect
to time. If there are several particles, each moving in a straight line according to some law;
then we can talk about the rate of change of each of the particles. Suppose the motion of
these particles is related in some way. (One may go up as the other goes down, as in a lever,
for example.) Then we say that we have a problem in related rates.
We are not limited to particles moving in a straight line. If a tank is being filled
with water, the level of the surface is rising with time. We talk about the rate of change of the
depth of the water. If the depth is denoted by h, then dh/dt is the rate of change of the depth.
Similarly, the volume V is increasing; dV/dt measures the rate of this increase. Any quantity
which grows or diminishes with time is a candidate for a problem in related rates.
4.10 RELATED RATES
In the problems we shall consider, it is important to remember that every quantity is
a function of time. Therefore, we can take derivatives of each quantity with respect
to t, the time. This derivative is called the rate of change.
Example 1: One airplane flew over an airport at the rate of
300 km/hr. Ten minutes later another airplane flew over the
airport at 240 km/hr. If the first airplane was flying west and
the second flying south (both at the same altitude),
determine the rate at which they were separating 20 minutes
after the second plane flew over the airport. (We assume the
airplanes are traveling at constant speed.)
Example 2: Water is flowing at the rate of 5 cubic
meters/min into a tank (Fig. 43) in the form oi a cone of
altitude 20 meters and base radius 10 meters and with its
vertex in the downward direction. How fast is the water level
rising when the water is 8 meters deep?
 4.10 RELATED RATES
All quantities which change with time must be denoted by letters.
The rules of procedure illustrated in Examples 1 and 2 are now outlined in the form of four
steps:

Step 1: Draw a diagram. Label any numerical quantities which remain fixed throughout
the problem (such as the dimensions of the cone in Example 2).
Step 2: Denote all quantities which change with time by letters. A relation (or relations)
is found among the quantities which vary; these relations must hold for all
time.
Step 3: Take differentials of the relation (or relations) found in Step 2. Divide by dt to
obtain a relation among the derivatives.
Step 4: Insert the special numerical values of all quantities to get the desired result.
4.10 RELATED RATES

Example 3: An airplane at an altitude of 3000 meters, flying

horizontally at 300 km/hr, passes directly over an observer. Find
the rate at which it is approaching the observer when it is 5000
meters away.
 THANK
YOU!!!!
ENGR. MARY CRIS L. AYING-TAMPOS
INSTRUCTOR