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CHAPTER-2
BODY STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTIONS

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

 The study of the

structure of the
human body is called
‘ANATOMY’
 The study of the
functioning of the
body is called
‘PHYSIOLOGY’

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BODY STRUCTURE

Smallest building unit is the

‘CELL’.
Cells join to form ‘TISSUES’.
Tissues join to form
‘ORGANS’.
Organs join to form
‘SYSTEMS’.
Systems join to form the
‘BODY’
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CELL

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TISSUE

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ORGAN

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SYSTEM

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THE HUMAN BODY

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THE MOUTH CAVITY

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THE CHEST CAVITY

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THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY

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SENSORY ORGANS

There are five sensory organs.

 Ear
 Eye
 Nose
 Tongue
 Skin

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• The human ear has two major special

sensory functions: Hearing (auditory)
and equilibrium (balance).
• The three parts of the human ear are
the external (outer ear, the middle ear
and the internal (inner) ear

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SKIN
Covers whole body as a protective layer
Secretes sweat for body temperature
regulation. Normal human body temperature
is 37deg C or 98.4 deg F.
The layer of fat below the skin, acts as an
insulator and preserves body heat.
 It also acts as a cushion and gives it
smoothness.
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THE THREE LAYERS OF SKIN

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SKIN

Store house of water

Sensory organ for touch, pain and
pressure
Has a forensic importance with finger
prints as an identification mark

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WATER

 Water is the most

important ingredient of our
body.
 Blood is 83% water
 Muscles 75% and
 Bone 22%.
 Approximately 65% of our
body weight is water.

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EYE
• The eye is like a camera.
• Light enters the eye through a
small hole called the pupil.
• The Lens focuses images on
the retina.
• Sclera, a tough white sheet
covers the outside of the eye.
• The front of this sheet (sclera)
is transparent to allow light to
enter the eye; this is known as
the cornea.

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 THE PUPILS – REACTION TO LIGHT

The iris, the colored ring of the eye, controls

light.
 It constricts the pupil when light is bright and
opens it when light is dim.
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MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

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SKELETAL SYSTEM

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SKELETAL SYSTEM

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BONES - FUNCTIONS
 Protect internal organs
 Allow movement at joints
 Factory which manufactures RBCs and WBCs and
platelets throughout the day.
 They store Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus(P) which
are necessary for clotting of blood, beating of the
heart, control of muscles, function of nervous
system, etc.
 Medico legal – help in distinguishing male and
female and age of a child

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JOINTS
 Formed when two or more bones
unite.
 Allow movement to occur.
Types:
 Movable
Ball and socket – Hip
Hinge – Elbow
Pivot – wrist, neck
 Immovable e.g. skull
 Partially movable e.g. backbone,
rib cage

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MUSCLES

Types
Voluntary or Skeletal
Involuntary
 Cardiac
 Smooth

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MUSCLES

• Functions
 To give shape and contour to our body
 To support entire bones of the skeleton
 To perform movements
 Protect bones, organs
 Maintain BP by their pumping action
• More than 600 muscles in body

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NAMES OF MUSCLES

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TENDON AND LIGAMENT

• Tendon joins a muscle to a bone.

• Ligament joins a bone to a bone.
• Both are important in this system as movement
can take place only with the help of these.
• Injury to a ‘tendon’ is known as a ‘STRAIN’ or a
muscle pull.
• Injury to a ‘ligament’ is known as a ‘SPRAIN’.
• First aid for both is R.I.C.E. – Rest, Ice,
Compression, Elevation.

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CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

This is made up of the

 Heart
 Blood vessels –
arteries
veins
capillaries
 Blood

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HEART

• Four chambers
• Made of cardiac muscle
• Placed in centre of chest,
tilted to the left
• Pumps blood at the rate of
about 72/min
• Systemic and Pulmonary
circuits

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BLOOD VESSELS

• Arteries
− Carry blood away from
heart
− Carry oxygen rich
blood (EXCEPT
Pulmonary artery)
− Have a thick wall (3
layers)
− Better felt (as pulses)
than seen

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BLOOD VESSELS
Veins
Carry blood towards heart
Carry oxygen poor blood (EXCEPT Pulmonary
vein)
Have a thinner wall (2 layers)
Better seen than felt
Capillaries
Thinnest blood vessels (1 layer)
Connect arteries and veins
Thinnest wall

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BLOOD
 5-6 liters of blood in an
adult
 Made of cells and plasma
 RBC – carry oxygen
 WBC - fighters
 Platelets – clotting
 8-10 thousand liters of
Blood pumped in 24 hours

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BLOOD - FUNCTIONS

Transportation of:
 Dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide)
 Waste products like urea, ammonia
 Hormones
 Salts (Na, K, Cl, Bicarbonate, etc.)
 Nutrients ( glucose, amino acids,
micronutrients)
 Plasma proteins (associated with defense,
such as blood clotting and antibodies).
 Blood cells
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PULSE RATE
This is a measure of
circulation or heart rate.
The patient’s forearm and
hand should be relaxed.
Place fingers over the radial
artery on the thumb side of the
patient’s wrist.

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PULSE RATE

 It is best felt on the radial artery with three

fingers and never the thumb.
 The normal pulse rate is 60 to 80 per
minute.
 It is increased during exercise, strong
emotions, shock, etc and
 It is decreased in athletes, hypothermia
and in head injury.

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• It is made up of:
Nose
Airway passage including the trachea,
larynx and bronchi
Two lungs
Diaphragm – a membrane which
separates the chest from the abdomen.

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

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FUNCTIONS OF THE NOSE AND

AIRWAY PASSAGE
 The nose regulates temperature of air that
is inhaled.
 The nose filters inhaled air (of dust, dirt and
germs).
 The nose humidifies the air that is inhaled.
 The hairy (Cilia) lining of the Bronchi clear
the air of dust, dirt, irritants which are
thrown out as sputum by coughing.

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LUNGS

Two in number, located on the right and left side of

heart in the chest cavity.
Covered by two layers of pleura – visceral and parietal
with a space in between.
Pleura protects and cushions lungs, pleural space has a
negative pressure, which is responsible for the suction
force required for breathing.
Each lung has about millions of alveoli or air sacs.
Oxygen exchange takes place in these alveoli.

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RESPIRATION
 500 ml air taken in with each breath.
 Rate (normal) – 15 – 18/minute
 Tachypnoea – increased rate seen in:
 Exercise and exertion
 shock, fear and panic situations
 Stress
 Results in shallow breathing, often from the mouth,
causing drying of mouth. Respiratory muscles tire
faster and can lead to stoppage of breathing.

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RESPIRATION

 Bradypnoea –decreased rate seen in:

hypothermia
head injury (compression).
 It leads to less oxygen intake, and dizziness.
 Apnea – stoppage of breathing. Artificial
respiration required.

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RESPIRATION - PROCESS
Controlled by respiratory centre in brain.
Inspiration:
 Diaphragm contracts and flattens, increases
chest cavity. Negative pressure is increased.
 Ribs rise outward and upward and increase
chest cavity
 Intercostal muscles help rib movement
 Suction force created, lungs expand and AIR is
drawn IN. This is an active process.

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RESPIRATION - PROCESS
 Expiration:(reversal of inspiration)
 Relaxing of diaphragm, ribs, rib muscles. Lungs
contract and AIR is pushed OUT. This is a passive
process.
Role of abdominal muscles:
 When the diaphragm comes down, the abdominal
muscles relax to allow room for abdominal organs
to go down and up during inspiration and
expiration.

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RESPIRATION - PROCESS

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INSPIRED VS EXPIRED AIR

ITEM INSPIRED AIR EXPIRED AIR
Temperature Atmospheric Body temperature
temperature
Humidity Atmospheric Nearly 100%
Humidity
Purity Atmospheric Nearly pure
Impurities present
Oxygen Approx 21% 16 – 18%
Carbon Dioxide .01 - .03% 1 – 3%
Nitrogen Approx. 78% Approx. 78%

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Starts from the mouth and
ends at the anus.
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small Intestines
 Colon
 The time taken for the food to
leave the stomach is 4-6
hours and 30-48 hours to
pass through the remaining
30 feet of the tract.

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Esophagus i.e. gullet or food pipe.

 Stomach – receives food from gullet and churns it
to a milky white state. It secretes hydrochloric
acid, which sterilizes the food.
 Small Intestines – food from the stomach comes
and is further digested and absorbed.
 Colon - It eliminates the residue from the body as
excreta or stool and is responsible for water and
mineral absorption.

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Vermiform appendix:
A small appendage attached to the beginning of the
colon on the right, lower abdomen.
A vestigial organ (in humans)- a remnant from our
ancestors, and has no function.
Acute Appendicitis:-
Inflammation of the appendix.
A medical emergency generally requiring surgical
removal.
If left untreated, risk of dying is high, because of
rupture
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ACCESSORY ORGANS

Teeth
break the food and mash it. This is known as
mastication
Tongue
a muscular organ needed for taste, speech and
swallowing
Salivary glands
3 pairs in number
Secrete saliva that helps in

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ACCESSORY ORGANS

− liquefying and digesting food,

− keeping the mouth clean and moist, preventing
thirst.
• Liver and gall bladder
− Secretion and storage of bile needed for
breakdown of fats before digestion
• Pancreas
− Secretes pancreatic juice for digestion.
− Secretes insulin for regulation of blood sugar.

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LIVER

• Regulates most chemical levels in the blood and

secretes a product called bile, which helps to
break down fats,
• Processes all of the blood leaving the stomach
and intestines and breaks down the nutrients
and drugs in the blood into forms that are easier
to use for the rest of the body.

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LIVER
 Production of cholesterol and special proteins to
help carry fats through the body.
 Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage.
 It regulates blood clotting.
 Clears the blood of drugs and other poisonous
substances e.g. alcohol.

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EXCRETORY SYSTEM

The Urinary System

is formed of
Kidne
Kidneys – 2, Right y
and Left
Ureter
Ureters – 2, Right
Bladd
and Left er

Urinary Bladder – 1 Urethr

a
Urethra - 1

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KIDNEYS
Two in number – right and left.
Located at the level of lowest ribs.
Right kidney is lower than left kidney.
Bean shaped and brown in colour.
Composed of millions of nephrons (filters).

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KIDNEYS

Function:
Body’s master chemist and its filtration plant.
Maintain the water and mineral balance of
blood.
Control Acid – Alkali balance in blood.
Help in disposal of waste products of blood not
required by the body e.g. urea, creatinin.
Allow only wastes to leave through the ureters.
About 1-2 litters of fluid leaves the body daily.

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URETERS AND URINARY BLADDER

 Ureters are two in number.
 Carry wastes from kidneys to the bladder.
 Push water down by muscular contractions.
 Bladder is the storage tank for urine.
 The apex of the bladder has an opening for the
urethra to discharge out urine i.e. urine passes out
of the body through an opening called external
urethral meatus.
 Capacity of the urinary bladder is approximately
400-600ml. However, it varies from individual to
individual.
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KIDNEY STONES
Stones formed due to:
low intake of water
other causes e.g. metabolic problems.
A stone in the kidney rarely causes any
symptoms.

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KIDNEY STONES

• When stone enters the ureter it causes a lot of

pain, which radiates from the back to the front
(loin to the groin). Can pass urine.
• A stone in the urethra will cause pain in the lower
abdomen and groin and causes inability to pass
urine. A few drops of blood may come out on
straining.

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
Divided into three parts:
1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) comprising
of
Brain
Spinal cord
Injury to the CNS can result in deep
unconsciousness called coma. Until the brain
revives itself, a person can remain in a coma
for months.

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
A. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
comprising of:
Sympathetic part
Parasympathetic part
B. Somatic nervous system
sensory nerves –carry messages from body to
brain through spinal cord.
motor nerves –carry commands from brain to
body.
mixed nerves – nerves have both motor and
sensory fibres.
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NERVOUS SYSTEM

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AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

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BRAIN

Functions:
Thought functions: intelligence, memory,
cognition (thinking), creativity, etc.
Motor functions: voluntary movements–
Right side Cerebrum controls left side of
body and the Left side Cerebrum controls
right side.

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BRAIN
 Sensory functions: sensations like touch, pain,
and temperature.
 Brain is the final center for Vision, Hearing,
Speech and all other functions.

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