Wolaita Sodo University

Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering

Signals and Systems Analysis ( ECEG-3091)

Chapter One
Classifications of Signals
Fundamental Concepts of Signals and Systems
Outline
 Introduction
 Continuous-time and Discrete-time Signals
 Basic Operations on Signals
 Basic Continuous and Discrete-time Signals
 Classification of Signals
 Representation of Systems
 Classification of Systems

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 Classification of Signals

i. Deterministic and Random Signals

 Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are
completely specified for any given time.
 Deterministic signals can be described by some mathematical
formula.
 Thus, a deterministic signal can be modeled by a known
function of time t.
 Random signals are those signals that take random values at
any given time and must be characterized statistically.
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 Example: Deterministic and Random Signals

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 Classification of Signals……

ii. Even and Odd Signals

 A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be an even signal if it
satisfies the condition:
x( t )  x(t ) , for all t
 A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be an odd signal if it
satisfies the condition:
x( t )  x(t ) , for all t
 Even signals are symmetric about the vertical axis whereas
odd signals are asymmetric.
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 Classification of Signals……

 Similarly, a discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be an even

signal if it satisfies the condition:
x (  n)  x ( n) , for all n
 A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be an odd signal if it
satisfies the condition:
x (  n)  x ( n) , for all n

 A general continuous-time signal x(t) can be decomposed into

its even and odd components as follows.

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 Classification of Signals……

 Let the signal x(t) be expressed as the sum of two components

xe(t) and xo(t) as follows:

x(t )  xe (t )  xo (t )

 Define xe(t) to be even and xo(t) to be odd, i.e.,

xe ( t )  xe (t ) and xo ( t )  xo (t )

 Putting
t  t
in the expression for x(t), we will get:
x( t )  xe ( t )  xo ( t )

 xe (t )  xo (t )
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 Classification of Signals……

 Solving for xe(t) and xo(t), we obtain:

1
xe (t )   x(t )  x( t )
2
and
1
xo (t )   x(t )  x( t )
2

 Similarly, a general discrete-time signal x(n) can be

decomposed into its even and odd components as follows.

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 Classification of Signals……

 Let the signal x(n) be expressed as the sum of two components

xe(n) and xo(n) as follows:

x ( n)  x e ( n)  x o ( n)

 Define xe(n) to be even and xo(n) to be odd, i.e.,

xe ( n)  xe (n) and xo ( n)  xo (n)
n  n
 Putting in the expression for x(n), we will get:
x (  n)  x e (  n)  x o (  n)

 x e ( n)  x o ( n)
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 Classification of Signals……

 Solving for xe(n) and xo(n), we obtain:

1
x e ( n)   x ( n)  x (  n) 
2
and
1
x o ( n)   x ( n)  x (  n) 
2

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Examples of even signals (󠅊aand b) and odd signals (c and d)

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 Classification of Signals……

Exercise:

Determine whether the following signals are even, odd or

neither. If the signals are neither even nor odd, evaluate the
even and odd components.
t , 0 t 1
 2 3n 
a. x(t )  e. x(n) n  cos 
0 , otherwise  4 

b. x(t ) 1  t cos(t )  t 2 sin(t ) f . x(n) n sin(0.25n)

c. x(t ) cos(t )  sin(t )  sin(t ) cos(t )

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 Classification of Signals……

iii. Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

 A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be periodic with
period T if there is a positive non-zero value of T for which:
x(t )  x(t  T ) , for all t
 If x(t) is periodic with period T, then it is also periodic for all
integer multiples of T. That is:
x(t )  x(t  kT ) , k is an integer
 The smallest positive value T is known as the fundamental
period.
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 Classification of Signals……

 Any continuous-time signal which is not periodic is called a

non-periodic or aperiodic signal.
 All continuous-time sinusoidal signals are periodic.

 Consider a continuous-time sinusoidal signal x(t) given by:

x(t )  A sin( 0 t   )
 This sinusoidal signal is periodic for all values of t and its
fundamental period is given by:
2
T
0
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 Classification of Signals……

 All continuous-time complex exponential signals are also

periodic.
 Consider a continuous-time complex exponential signal x(t)
given by:
x(t ) e j (0t  )
 This complex exponential signal is periodic for all values of t
and its fundamental period is given by:
2
T
0
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 Classification of Signals……

Exercise:

Determine whether the following continuous-time signals are

periodic or non-periodic. If the signals are periodic, find their
fundamental period.
a. x(t ) sin(4t ) d . x(t ) 2t  5

b. x(t )  tan(10t ) e. x(t ) e  2t

c. x(t ) e j ( 2t 7 ) f . x(t ) e j (8t )

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 Classification of Signals……

 A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be periodic with period N

if there is a positive integer value of N for which:
x ( n)  x ( n  N ) , for all n
 If x(n) is periodic with period N, then it is also periodic for all
integer multiples of N. That is:
x(n)  x(n  kN ) , k is an integer
 The smallest positive value N is known as the fundamental
period.

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 Classification of Signals……

 Any discrete-time signal which is not periodic is called a non-

periodic or aperiodic discrete-time signal.
 All discrete-time sinusoidal signals are not periodic.

 Consider a discrete-time sinusoidal signal x(n) given by:

x(n)  A sin( 0 n   )
 This sinusoidal signal is periodic if and only if:
2
rational number
0

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 Classification of Signals……

 The term rational number is defined as a fraction of two

integers.
 Given that the above discrete-time sinusoidal signal is periodic,
its fundamental period is evaluated from the relationship:

2
N m
0

 The fundamental period is calculated from the above equation

with m set to the smallest integer that results in an integer value
for N.
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 Classification of Signals……

 All discrete-time complex exponential signals are not also

periodic.
 Consider a discrete-time complex exponential signal x(n)
given by:
x(n) e j ( 0 n  )
2
 This complex exponential signal is periodic iff  is a
0

rational number and its fundamental period is given by:

2
N m
0
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 Classification of Signals……

Exercise:

Determine whether the following discrete-time signals are

periodic or non-periodic. If the signals are periodic, find their
fundamental period.
 7n  
 n   j  
 8 2
a. x(n) sin    d . x ( n ) e
 12 4 
 3n 
b. x(n) cos  e. x(n) 2 n u (n)
 10 
c. x(n) cos(0.5n) f . x(t ) e j (3n )
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 Classification of Signals……

 The sum of two periodic continuous-time signals may not be

always periodic.
 Consider a continuous-time signal x(t) given by:

x(t )  x1 (t )  x 2 (t )
 If x1(t) is periodic with fundamental period T1 and x2(t) is

periodic with fundamental period T2, then x(t) is periodic if

and only if:
T1 m
 rational number
T2 n
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 Classification of Signals……

 The fundamental period of x(t) given by:

T1 m

T2 n

 T nT1 mT2

 In the above equation, the values of m and n must be chosen

such that the greatest common divisor (gcd) between m and n
is 1.

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 Classification of Signals……

 The sum of two periodic discrete-time signals is always

periodic.
 Consider a discrete-time signal x(n) given by:

x(n)  x1 (n)  x 2 (n)

 If x1(n) is periodic with fundamental period N1 and x2(n) is

periodic with fundamental period N2, then x(n) is always

periodic with fundamental period:
N1 m
  N nN 1 mN 2
N2 n
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 Classification of Signals……

Exercise:

Determine whether the following signals are periodic or non-

periodic. If the signals are periodic, find their fundamental
period.
a. x(t ) sin 4t   cos3t 
b. x(t ) sin 4t   cos10t 

c. x(t ) e j 2t 4   cos10t 

 n   n 
d . x(n) cos   cos 
 12   18 
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 Classification of Signals……
iv. Energy and Power Signals
 The normalized energy E of a continuous-time signal x(t) is
defined as:

 2
E   x(t ) dt


 The normalized average power P of x(t) is defined as:

1 T /2 2
P  lim
T T 
T /2
x(t ) dt

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 Classification of Signals……

 Similarly, for a discrete-time signal x(n), the normalized

energy E is defined as:
 2

E   x ( n)
n 

 The normalized average power P of x(n) is defined as:

N 2
1
P  lim
N  2N 1

n  N
x ( n)

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 Classification of Signals……
 A signal is said to be an energy signal if the normalized total energy E
has a non-zero finite value, i.e., 0 < E < ∞ and so P=0
 On the other hand, a signal is said to be a power signal if it has non-
zero finite normalized average power, i.e., 0 < P < ∞, thus implying
that E = ∞ .
 A signal cannot be both an energy and a power signal simultaneously.
 The energy signals have zero average power whereas the power
signals have infinite total energy.
 Some signals, however, can be classified as neither power signals nor
as energy signals.

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 Classification of Signals……

Exercise:

Categorize each of the following signals as an energy or power

signal or neither.
t , 0 t 1
   n 
 sin  2  ,  4 n 4
a. x(t ) 2  t , 1 t 2 c. x(n)   
 
0 , otherwise 0 , otherwise


5 cost ,  1 t 1

b. x(t ) 
0 , otherwise
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 Representation of Systems
 A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that
relates the input signal to the output signal.
 In other words, a system is a mathematical operator or mapping
that transforms an input signal into an output signal by means of
a fixed set of rules or operations.
 The notation T[ .] is used to represent a general system in which
an input signal is transformed into an output signal.
 Mathematically, the input and output signals can be related as:

y (t ) T [ x(t )] or y (n) T [ x(n)]

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 Representation of Systems……
 The relationship between the input and output may be expressed
in terms of a concise mathematical rule or function.
 It is also possible to describe a system in terms of an algorithm
that provides a sequence of instructions or operations that is to
be applied to the input signal.

Fig. Representation of continuous-time and discrete-time systems

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 Classification of Systems
 In the analysis or design of a system, it is desirable to classify
the system according to some generic properties that the
system satisfies.
 For a system to possess a given property, the property must
hold true for all possible input signals that can be applied to
the system.
 If a property holds for some input signals but not for others,
the system does not satisfy that property.

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 Classification of Systems……
 We can classify systems into the following six basic categories.

i. Linear Vs non-linear systems

ii. Time-invariant Vs time-varying systems

iii. Memoryless Vs memory systems

iv. Causal Vs non-causal systems

v. Stable Vs unstable systems

vi. Invertible Vs non-invertible systems

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 Classification of Systems……

i. Linear Vs non-linear systems

 A system is linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition.
 A continuous-time system with input x(t) and output y(t) is
said to be linear iff:
T [a1 x1 (t )  a 2 x 2 (t )] a1T [ x1 (t )]  a 2T [ x 2 (t )]

 Similarly, a discrete-time system with input x(n) and output

y(n) is said to be linear iff:
T [a1 x1 (n)  a 2 x 2 (n)] a1T [ x1 (n)]  a 2T [ x 2 (n)]

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 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are linear or non-linear.
a. y (t ) 2 x(t ) e. y (n)  x(n)  x(n  2)

b. y (t ) e x ( t ) f . y (n) sin[ x(n)]

dx(t )
c. y (t ) 
dt

d . y (t ) 3 x(t )  5

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 Classification of Systems……

ii. Time-invariant Vs time-varying systems

 A system is said to be time-invariant if a time delay or time
advance in the input signal leads to an identical time-shift in
the output signal.
 A continuous-time system with an input x(t) and output y(t) is
said to be time-invariant iff:
y (t  t 0 ) T [ x(t  t 0 )]
 Similarly, a discrete-time system with an input x(n) and
output y(n) is said to be time-invariant iff:
y (n  n0 ) T [ x(n  n0 )]
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 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are time-invariant or time-varying.

a. y (t ) sin[ x(t )] e. y (n)  x(n)  x(n  2)

b. y (t ) t sin[ x(t )] f . y (n) nx(n)

c. y (t )  x 2 (t )

d . y ( n)  x (  n)

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 Classification of Systems……
iii. Memoryless Vs memory systems
 A continuous-time system is said to be memoryless or
instantaneous if its output y(t) at time t = t0 depends only on the
values of the input x(t) at the same time t = t0.

 On the other hand, if the response of a system at t = t0 depends on

the values of the input x(t) in the past or in the future time, it is
called a dynamic system or a system with memory.
 Similarly, a discrete-time system is said to be memoryless if its
output y(n) at time instant n = n0 depends only on the value of its
input x(n) at the same time instant n = n0. Otherwise, the discrete-
time system is said to have memory.
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 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are memoryless or memory.
a. y (t )  x(2t ) e. y (n)  x(n  2)

 n
b. y (t )  x(t  5) f . y ( n )  x 
 2

c. y (t )  x 2 (t ) g . y ( n ) e x ( n )

d . y (t ) 3 x(t )  5
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 Classification of Systems……
iv. Causal Vs non-causal systems
 A continuous-time system is said to be causal if the output at
timet t 0 depends only on the input x(t) fort t 0 .
 Similarly, a discrete-time system is causal if the output at time
instantn n0 depends only on the input x(n) forn n0 .
 That is, the output of a causal system at the present time
depends on only the present and/or past values of the input but
not on its future values.
 A system that violates the causality condition is called a non-
causal or anti-causal system.
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 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are causal or non-causal.
a. y (t )  x(t  2)  x(t  2) e. y (n)  x(n  3)  4

 n
b. y (t )  x(t  2)  x(t  5) f . y ( n )  x 
 2

c. y (t )  x 2 (t  2) g . y ( n ) e x ( n  2 )

d . y (t )  x(2t )
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 Classification of Systems……

v. Stable Vs unstable systems

 A system is referred to as bounded-input, bounded-output
(BIBO) stable if an arbitrary bounded-input signal always
produces a bounded-output signal.
 A continuous-time system with input x(t) and output y(t) is
said to be BIBO stable iff:
x(t )  B x    y (t )  B y  
 Similarly, a discrete-time system with input x(n) and output
y(n) is said to be BIBO stable iff:
x ( n)  B x    y ( n)  B y  
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 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are BIBO stable or unstable.

a. y (t ) 2 x(t )  5 d . y ( n ) e x ( n )

n 2
b. y (t )  x(t  5) e. y (n)   x(k )
k n  2

n
c. y (t )  x 2 (t ) f . y ( n)   x ( k )
k 

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 Classification of Systems……
vi. Invertible Vs non-invertible systems
 A continuous-time system is said to be invertible if the input
signal x(t) can be uniquely determined from the output y(t) for
all time t ∈ (−∞,∞).
 Similarly, a discrete-time system is said to be invertible if the
input signal x(n) can be uniquely determined from the output
y(n) for all time n ∈ (−∞,∞).
 To be invertible, two different inputs cannot produce the same
output since, in such cases, the input signal cannot be uniquely
determined from the output signal.
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 Classification of Systems……

Exercise:

Determine whether the systems with the following input-output

relationships are invertible or non-invertible.
a. y (t ) 3 x(t )  5 e. y (n) 2 x(n)  7

b. y (t ) cos[ x(t )] f . y ( n)  x ( 2n)

c. y (t )  x 2 (t ) g . y ( n ) e x ( n )

d . y (t )  x(t )  x(t  2)

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Exercise

1. Determine whether the following signals are even, odd or

neither. If the signals are neither even nor odd, evaluate the
even and odd components.

a. x(t ) t 2  cos2t  d . x(t ) tu (t )

 1n , n 0 n , 0 n  4

b. x(n)  e. x(n) 
0 , n0 0 , otherwise

 t  sin 2n 
c. x(t ) t sin   f . x ( n) 
2 n

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 Exercise……

2. Determine whether the following signals are periodic or non-

periodic. Calculate the fundamental period for the periodic
signals.
   7n   3n 
j  5t   j  j 
4  4   4 
a. x(t )  e 
d . x ( n ) e e

 6t   3t   2n 
b. x(t ) sin    2 cos  e. x(n) cos 
 7  5  5 

 3t   63t 
f . x(n)  1
n
c. x(t ) sin   cos 
 8   64 

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Exercise……

3. Determine if the following signals are energy or power signals

or neither. Calculate the energy and power of the signals in
each case.
 n  
j  
a. x(t ) cost sin t  d . x(n) e  2 8

cos3t ,  3 n 3

e. x(n)  1
n
b. x(t ) 

0 , otherwise

 n   3n 
c. x(t ) e  2t u (t ) f . x(n) cos  sin  
 4   8 
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Exercise……

4. Determine whether the systems described by the following input-output

relationships are:

i. Memoryless or memory

ii. Linear or non-linear

iii. Time-invariant or time-varying

iv. Causal or non-causal

v. BIBO Stable or unstable

vi. Invertible or non-invertible

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Exercise……

a. y(t)  x(  t) h. y(n)  x(n)  x(n  1 )

b. y(t) cos [x(t)] i. y(n)  x(n  1)  x(n  1)

c. y(t )  x(2t ) j. y (n)  x(2n  5)

d. y(t) 5 x(3t  2) k . y ( n)  x ( 2n)  5
n 2
e. y(t)  x( 2  t) l. y ( n)   x(k )
k n  2

f. y(t)  x(t) m. y (n) 2 x ( n )

g. y(t) tx (t  4)
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