Techniques of

Cartography and
Geographical Analysis
Week 2 Lecture
Dr. Munene Mugambi
What is a map projection?
• A map projection
• is a method of showing our earth (or smaller sections of it) on
a flat surface. It involves transferring latitudes and longitudes
of our spherical earth, which is 3D, onto a flat and 2D surface.
• Our world isn't flat, but when we look at maps, it's been
manipulated in a way that we can view it from a flattened
perspective.
• Maps are important for geographers because they are their primary
tool for conducting spatial analysis.
What is Cartography?
• Cartography
• is the discipline and art of creating maps. It involves the study and practice of
representing geographical information visually on a map. Cartographers use various
techniques, tools, and technologies to accurately depict the features of the Earth's
surface, such as landforms, bodies of water, roads, cities, and political boundaries.
• The art, science, and technology of making maps
• The main goal of cartography is to communicate spatial information effectively.
• Cartographers consider factors like scale, projection, symbols, colors, and
typography to create visually appealing and informative maps.
• They may incorporate different types of data, such as topography (land forms
and features), population density, climate patterns, or thematic information,
depending on the purpose of the map.
Cartography
• Cartography has evolved significantly over time, from hand-drawn maps
to computer-generated and interactive digital maps.
• Modern cartographic techniques often involve the use of Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and satellite imagery to collect, analyze, and
visualize spatial data.
• Maps created through cartography have numerous applications,
including navigation, urban planning, environmental management,
geological studies, transportation planning, and many more.
• They serve as valuable tools for understanding and interpreting the
Earth's physical and cultural features, aiding in decision-making and
spatial analysis across various fields.
 • Which map makes it easier to
have a sense of direction?
Why are
• Globes are not good for
map showing detailed information
projections unlike maps.

important? • imagine trying to find the

directions to the local bakery
using a globe!
Properties of Map Projection
• Map projections have several properties that affect the way geographic
features are represented on a two-dimensional map. Here are some
important properties of map projections:
• Shape: Map projections can preserve or distort the shape of geographic
features. Some projections maintain accurate shapes locally, while
others introduce distortions, particularly in areas far from the
projection's reference point.
• Area: Map projections can preserve or distort the area of geographic
regions. Certain projections maintain accurate relative sizes of areas,
while others magnify or shrink certain regions, leading to distortions in
area comparisons.
Properties of Map Projection
• Distance: Map projections can preserve or distort distances between
points on the Earth's surface. Some projections maintain accurate
distances locally, while others stretch or compress distances,
particularly in regions far from the projection's reference point.
• Direction: Map projections can preserve or distort directions or
bearings between points. Certain projections maintain accurate
directions locally, while others introduce angular distortions, causing
deviations from true compass bearings.
Why are map projections important?
• They allow us to represent the curved surface of the Earth on a flat map.
• They provide a systematic method for accurately depicting geographic features,
aiding navigation, spatial analysis, and communication of spatial information.
• Map projections enable us to determine distances, directions, and routes,
supporting navigation systems like GPS.
• They facilitate spatial analysis by allowing researchers and decision-makers to
interpret and analyze spatial data.
• Map projections also influence the design and aesthetics of maps, and they
provide a global perspective, helping us understand the Earth as a whole.
• Overall, map projections are crucial tools in cartography, enabling us to understand
and communicate the complexities of the Earth's surface in a meaningful way.
Map Projection
• Maps help overcome these limitations in several ways:
• Many spatial distributions, patterns and relations of interest to geographers
cover extensive areas that cannot be comprehensively seen or studied from
one vantage point. Maps provide an aerial perspective.
• Some phenomena like language usage or religious beliefs have a spatial
dimension but are not tangible features visible on the ground. Maps can
depict their distribution.
• Interactions, flows and exchanges between places that influence spatial
dynamics may not always be directly observable. Maps serve as a means to
represent and analyze these linkages.
A brief history of Maps
• Throughout history, maps have played an important role in
understanding the world and navigating our surroundings.
• They have evolved from simple representations to sophisticated tools
that aid in exploration, research, decision-making, and
communication of spatial information.
Oldest world map (Babylon
in the 6th century BC.

• Ancient Maps: Mapping has a long history

dating back thousands of years. Some of the
earliest known maps were created by ancient
civilizations such as the Babylonians,
Egyptians, and Greeks.
• These maps were often simple
representations of local areas, emphasizing
landmarks and important features (e.g. rivers
which were centers of civilization).
• Not much was known to be beyond
what the maps had illustrated
Ptolemy's world
map, designed in
150 AD (2nd
century).
• Ptolemaic Era: Greek
geographer Claudius Ptolemy
revolutionized cartography
with his work "Geographia."
• He introduced the concepts of
latitude and longitude and
developed a coordinate-based
system for mapping the Earth.
• His maps were widely used
and influenced cartography
for centuries.
Mappa Mundi
by Richard of
Haldingham.
14th century.
• Medieval Period: During the
Middle Ages, mapmaking was
largely influenced by religious
beliefs and symbolism.
• Mappa mundi, or world maps,
were common and depicted a
combination of geographic
knowledge, mythical elements,
and religious themes. (e.g.
emphasis on Jerusalem and
Garden of Eden
• These maps often lacked
accuracy but provided valuable
insights into medieval
worldview.
Gerard van
Schagen's map
of the world,
drawn in 1689
• Age of Exploration: The 15th
and 16th centuries marked the
Age of Exploration, during which
European explorers set out to
discover new lands.
• This period led to significant
advancements in cartography as
explorers like Christopher
Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and
Ferdinand Magellan collected
detailed geographic information.
• The creation of more accurate
maps became crucial for
navigation and trade.
• Much of the world was mapped.
16th to 17th
Century
• Scientific Revolution and
Modern Cartography: The
Scientific Revolution of the
16th and 17th centuries
brought about a shift in
mapmaking.
• Advances in mathematics,
astronomy, and surveying
techniques led to more precise
maps. Prominent figures like
Gerardus Mercator and
Abraham Ortelius developed
innovative map projections
and atlases, respectively,
which greatly improved
accuracy and usability.
19th century:
The era of
cartography
• Topographic and Thematic
Mapping: In the 19th
century, topographic
mapping gained prominence.
• Governments conducted
large-scale surveys to map
their territories in detail.
• Additionally, thematic maps
emerged, focusing on specific
themes like geology, climate,
population, and economic
data. These maps provided
specialized information for
various disciplines.
World Map
- 1910
• Digital Era: The latter half of
the 20th century saw the
rise of digital mapping
technologies.
• Computer-based Geographic
Information Systems (GIS)
revolutionized mapmaking,
allowing for the efficient
storage, analysis, and
visualization of spatial data.
• The advent of satellite
imagery, remote sensing,
and GPS further enhanced
mapping capabilities.
The Modern Era
of Google maps
• Contemporary Mapping: Today, digital
mapping is pervasive, and online
mapping platforms like Google Maps
and OpenStreetMap have made maps
accessible to the general public.
• Advanced technologies, such as
interactive maps, 3D visualization, and
real-time data integration, continue to
shape modern cartography, facilitating
a wide range of applications from
navigation to urban planning to disaster
management.
• Google earth is gives an interactive 3D
real time visualization of the world.
Locating points on a sphere
• The starting point of all geographic study is the location of places
and things.
• We noted that absolute location is the identification of place by a
precise and accepted system of coordinates (geographical
coordinate system)
• Geographical Grid-
• A geographical grid, also known as a coordinate grid or geographic
coordinate system, is a system used to identify and locate points on the
Earth's surface.
• It provides a framework of reference lines that form a network of intersecting
latitude and longitude lines, allowing for precise location determination.
Geographical Grid
• The geographical grid is based on the concept of latitude and
longitude, which are angular measurements that define positions on
the Earth.
• Latitude lines- also called parallels, run parallel to the equator and
measure the distance north or south of it. (critical to climate and
weather)
• Longitude lines- also known as meridians, converge at the poles and
measure the distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, which
passes through Greenwich, London. (critical to time and date)
Geographical Grid
• Together, latitude and longitude form a grid system, with lines of latitude
and longitude intersecting to create a coordinate for a specific location.
• The combination of a latitude value (in degrees, minutes, and seconds) and
a longitude value (in degrees, minutes, and seconds) uniquely identifies a
point on the Earth's surface.
• The geographical grid is widely used in navigation (Global Positioning
System- GPS), cartography, and geographic information systems (GIS) to
specify the location of places, track movement, and analyze spatial data.
• It provides a universal reference system that allows for accurate
communication of positions and facilitates spatial analysis and mapping of
the Earth's features.
Types of Map Projections
• There are several types of map projections and each one has its own
characteristics and properties. The common types are:
• Mercator Projection
• Robinson Projection
• Conic Projection
• Planar Projection
Mercator
Projection
• it is a cylindrical projection
that preserves accurate
angles and shapes,
particularly near the
equator.
• It is commonly used for
navigation purposes due to
its ability to represent
straight lines as constant
compass bearings.
• However, it introduces
significant distortions in
area and shape as you
move toward the poles.
Robinson
• It is a compromise projection that attempts to balance the distortion of various
properties.
• It provides a visually pleasing representation of the entire world with minimized

Projection
distortions in size, shape, and distance.
• It is often used for world maps that emphasize overall shape and general spatial
relationships.
Conic
projection
• It is created by projecting the
Earth's surface onto a cone.
They are commonly used for
mapping mid-latitude regions.
• Examples of conic projections
include the Albers equal-area
conic projection and the
Lambert conformal conic
projection.
• These projections preserve
either area or shape, depending
on the specific type chosen.
 Planar projection, also known as an azimuthal projection, is a type of map projection that projects the Earth's surface onto a tangent
plane or a secant plane from a single point on the globe. The point of tangency or intersection is typically one of the poles (north pole or
south pole) or the center of the map. It
preserves accurate directions and distances from the central point, making it suitable for mapping polar regions or for portraying
hemispheres.
Scale
• Scale refers to the ratio or relationship
between a distance on the map and the
corresponding distance in the real world.
• It means that one unit of measurement on
the map represents a certain number of the
same units on the ground.
• For example, a 1:10,000 scale means that one
unit on the map represents 10,000 units on the
ground (in the real world).
• It allows map users to make accurate
measurements, estimate distances, and
assess the relative sizes of different areas or
objects.
Topographic Maps and Terrain
Representations
• Topographic maps are detailed and accurate representations of the Earth's
surface, depicting both natural and man-made features. They provide essential
information about the shape, elevation, and characteristics of the terrain.
• Topographic maps provide detailed information about the Earth's surface, its
elevation, and the features present. They are used for navigation, planning, and
analysis in a wide range of fields.
• By accurately representing the terrain, topographic maps enable users to
interpret the landscape and make informed decisions related to their specific
needs.
• They are valuable for hikers, surveyors, engineers, urban planners, geologists,
and various other professionals who require detailed information about the
terrain
Topographic Maps and Terrain
Representations
 African
Topographic
Map and
Terrain
Representation
Remote Sensing
• Remote sensing
• is the science and technology of acquiring information about the Earth's surface and atmosphere from a distance,
without direct physical contact with the object or area being observed. It involves the use of sensors, typically
mounted on aircraft or satellites, to capture and measure electromagnetic radiation emitted or reflected by the
Earth's surface.
• Remote sensing enables the collection of data about various features and phenomena on the Earth's
surface, including land cover, vegetation, water bodies, urban areas, and natural resources (gas and oil
exploration).
• it provides valuable data and information about the Earth's surface and atmosphere on a large scale,
facilitating various applications in environmental monitoring, resource management, disaster response,
climate studies, and more. It enables a better understanding of our planet, supports informed decision-
making, and helps address global challenges.
• Remote sensing data is instrumental in natural resource exploration, including mineral deposits, oil and
gas reserves, and groundwater resources. It provides valuable insights into the availability, distribution,
and characteristics of these resources, aiding in their efficient extraction and management. Remote
sensing is also used in urban planning, transportation network design, and infrastructure development.
Geographical Information Systems
• Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
• are computer-based systems designed to capture, store, analyze, manage, and
present spatial or geographic data. GIS combines geographic data (which includes
coordinates and attribute information) with specialized software and tools to enable
the manipulation, analysis, and visualization of spatial data.
• GIS are important because they enable the integration, analysis, and
visualization of spatial data.
• GIS supports decision-making, planning, and management across various
sectors, including environmental, emergency response, infrastructure,
business, and resource exploration.
• It provides spatial insights, helps solve complex problems, and contributes to
sustainable development and informed decision-making.
Geographical Information System –
Spatial Data
Mapping in Urban Planning
• Mapping can help in establishing appropriate development in both urban and
rural areas to facilitate sound, “planned” and sustainable infrastructure
development practice.
• Where should we locate government offices to ensure service delivery?
• Where should we locate leisure spaces, malls, tourist activities, green spaces,
walkways, bike paths, roads?
• Where should we zone industries, agriculture production, conserved spaces and
natural resource extraction?
• Where should we locate low- and high-income housing?
• Which areas are prone to natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods?
What development types and strategies can we apply to these areas
Mapping Natural Disasters
• With advances made in Remote Sensing and Geographical
Information Systems
• We can map natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes in Morocco, Syria,
Turkey, Japan and Floods in Libya)
• National Centers for Environmental Information- Natural Hazards
Viewer
• https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/maps/hazards/
• We can also map global environmental conflicts such as resource
conflicts
• https://ejatlas.org/
Satellite imagery of changes in Lake
Chad (1963-2007)
Name the City

• Which City is this?

• Can you interpret these land use
and land cover images of this city?
• What do these four images mean
or represent according to you?
Changes in Casablanca Land
use/land cover 1999-2019
Mapping
Morocco’s Mineral
Resources and
geological wealth
• Map symbols represent the
location of resources throughout
various parts of Morocco.
• Precious Metals- Gold, Silver.
• Industrial Rocks and Minerals-
Fluorine, bentonite, phosphates,
gypsum.
• Base metals- lead, copper,
barium, cobalt, zinc
China’s Resource
Mapping

• Map symbols are representing the

location of various resources and
resource areas such as:
• Fuels- refineries, gas fields,
oilfields, oil basin
• Power- hydro, transmission lines,
thermal
• Minerals- copper, lead, zinc,
• Metal- iron ore, manganese,
tungsten
Mapping
Morocco’s
Water
Sources
Mapping and Growth of Morocco’s
Urban Spaces
• Morocco's Urban spaces are rapidly growing and urban planning is
playing a critical role in imagining and re-imagining spaces in these
urban centers. (e.g. Marrakech, Casablanca)
• The requires territorial planning to imagine use of available spaces or
replanning use of available spaces to ensure efficiencies in meeting
the needs of growing urban spaces
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331940517_Urban_growt
h_territorial_and_social_reorganization_in_Marrakech_Morocco/figu
res?lo=1

• https://www.mdpi.com/2413-8851/4/2/18
Reference on maps, cartography
and planning
• For more information and clarification on maps and cartography
check out the Geography Realm site:
• https://www.geographyrealm.com/zero-degrees-latitude-and-zero-de
grees-longitude/

• Urban Planning in Morocco

• https://www.mdpi.com/2413-8851/4/2/18