Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

Fifth Edition

Chapter 4
Chemical Reactions and
Chemical Quantities

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The Greenhouse Effect
• The greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere
– allow sunlight to enter
the atmosphere.
– warm Earth’s surface.
– prevent some of the
heat generated by the – The balance between
sunlight from escaping. incoming and outgoing
energy from the sun
determines Earth’s
average temperature.

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Global Warming (1 of 2)
• Scientists have measured an average 0.7°C rise in atmospheric
elsius

temperature since 1860.

• During the same period, atmospheric C O2 levels have risen 38%.

• Are the two trends causal?

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Global Warming (2 of 2)
• One source of CO2 is the combustion reactions of fossil
fuels we use to get energy.
• Another source of CO2 is volcanic action.
– How can we judge whether global warming is natural
or due to our use of fossil fuels?

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Chemical Reaction
• Chemical reaction: a process in which one or more
substances are converted into one or more different ones
– Involve chemical changes in matter resulting in new
chemical substances
• Combustion reaction: a particular type of chemical
reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen to
form one or more oxygen-containing compounds
– Also emit heat

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Chemical Equations
• Shorthand way of describing a reaction

Reactants  Products
• Provide information about the reaction
– Formulas of reactants and products
– States of reactants and products
– Relative numbers of reactant and product molecules
that are required can be used to determine weights of
reactants used and products that can be made

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States of Reactants and Products in
Chemical Equations

Abbreviation State
(g) Gas
(l ) Liquid
(s) Solid
(aq) Aqueous (water solution)

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Combustion of Methane (1 of 4)
• Methane gas burns to produce carbon dioxide gas and
gaseous water.
– Whenever something burns it combines with O2 (g ).

CH4 (g )  O2 (g )  CO2 (g )  H2O( g )

• If you look closely, you should immediately spot a problem.

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Combustion of Methane (2 of 4)
• Notice also that the left side has four hydrogen atoms
while the right side has only two.

• To correct these problems, we must balance the equation

by changing the coefficients, not the subscripts.

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Combustion of Methane: Balanced
• To show that the reaction obeys the Law of Conservation
of Mass, the equation must be balanced.
– We adjust the numbers of molecules so there are
equal numbers of atoms of each element on both
sides of the arrow.

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Conceptual Connection 4.1 (1 of 2)
How many oxygen atoms are on the right-hand side of the
following chemical equation?

4 FeCO3 (s )  O2 (g )  2 Fe2O3 (s )  4 CO2 (g )

a. 4 b. 5 c. 6 d. 14

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Conceptual Connection 4.1 (2 of 2)
How many oxygen atoms are on the right-hand side of the
following chemical equation?

4 FeCO3 (s )  O2 (g )  2 Fe2O3 (s )  4 CO2 (g )

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Conceptual Connection 4.2 (1 of 2)
Which quantity or quantities must always be the same on
both sides of a chemical equation?
a. the number of atoms of each kind
b. the number of molecules of each kind
c. the number of moles of each kind of molecule

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Conceptual Connection 4.2 (2 of 2)
Which quantity or quantities must always be the same on
both sides of a chemical equation?

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Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much
Carbon Dioxide?
• The balanced chemical equations for fossil-fuel
combustion reactions provide the exact relationships
between the amount of fossil fuel burned and the amount
of carbon dioxide emitted.

2 C8H18 (l )  25 O2 (g )  16 CO2 (g )  18 H2O(g )

– 16 CO2 molecules are produced for every 2 molecules

of octane burned.

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Quantities in Chemical Reactions
• The amount of every substance used and made in a
chemical reaction is related to the amounts of all the other
substances in the reaction.
– Law of conservation of mass
– Balancing equations by balancing atoms
• The study of the numerical relationship between chemical
quantities in a chemical reaction is called stoichiometry.

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Reaction Stoichiometry
• The coefficients in a chemical reaction specify the relative
amounts in moles of each of the substances involved in
the reaction.
2 C8H18 (l )  25 O2 (g )  16 CO2 (g )  18 H2O(g )
– 2 molecules of C8H18 react with 25 molecules of O2 to
form 16 molecules of CO2 and 18 molecules of H2O.
– 2 moles of C8H18 react with 25 moles of O2 to form 16
moles of CO2 and 18 moles of H2O.
2 mol C8H18 : 25 mol O2 : 16 mol CO2 : 18 mol H2 O

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Making Pizza
• The number of pizzas you can make depends on the
amount of the ingredients you use.
1 crust + 5 oz tomato sauce + 2 cups cheese  1 pizza

This relationship can be expressed mathematically.

1 crust : 5 oz sauce : 2 cups cheese : 1 pizza
• We can compare the amount of pizza that can be made
from 10 cups of cheese:
2 cups cheese : 1 pizza, then,
1 pizza
10 cups cheese  5 pizzas
2 cups cheese
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Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole
Conversions
• We use the ratio from the balanced chemical equation in
the same way that we used the ratio from the pizza recipe.

The ratio of the coefficients acts as a conversion factor

between the amount in moles of the reactants and products.

2 C8H18 (l )  25 O2 (g )  16 CO2 (g )  18 H2O(g )

stoichiometric ratio: 2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2

The ratio acts as a conversion factor between the amount

in moles of the reactant, C8H18, and the amount in moles of
the product, CO2.
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Mole-to-Mole Conversions
• Suppose we burn 22.0 moles of C8H18; how many moles of
CO2 form?
2 C8H18 (l )  25 O2 (g )  16 CO2 (g )  18 H2O(g )

stoichiometric ratio: 2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2

16 mol CO2
22.0 mol C8H18  176 mol CO2
2 mol C8H18

• The combustion of 22.0 moles of C8H18 adds 176 moles of

CO2 to the atmosphere.

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Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass
Conversions
• The world burned the equivalent of 3.7 1015 g
of gasoline (octane) in 2013. We can estimate the mass of
CO2 produced based on the flowchart below.

• We use molar mass as a conversion factor between the

mass given and amount in moles.
• We use coefficients as the conversion factor between
the reactant, C8H18, and the amount in moles of the
product, CO2, and then molar mass as the conversion
factor to get the mass of CO2 produced.
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Conceptual Connection 4.3 (1 of 2)
Use the balanced equation for the combustion of octane to
determine how many moles of H2O are produced by the
combustion of 22.0 moles of C8H18.

2 C8H18 (l )  25 O2 (g )  16 CO2 (g )  18 H2O(g )

a. 18 moles H2O b. 22 moles H2O

c. 176 moles H2O d. 198 moles H2O

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Conceptual Connection 4.3 (2 of 2)
Use the balanced equation for the combustion of octane to
determine how many moles of H2O are produced by the
combustion of 22.0 moles of C8H18.

2 C8H18 (l )  25 O2 (g )  16 CO2 (g )  18 H2O(g )

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Mass-to-Mass Conversions
• If we burn 3.7 1015 g C8H18 , how many grams of CO2 form?

2 C8H18 (l )  25 O2 (g )  16 CO2 (g )  18 H2 O(g )

molar mass: C8H18114.22 g/mol, CO2 44.01 g/mol

stoichiometric ratio: 2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2

16 mol CO2
22.0 mol C8H18  176 mol CO2
2 mol C8H18

• The combustion 3.7 1015 g C8H18 adds 1.11016g CO 2

to the atmosphere.

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Conceptual Connection 4.4 (1 of 2)
Under certain conditions, sodium reacts with oxygen to form
sodium oxide according to the reaction:

4 Na(s )  O2 (g )  2 Na2O(s )

Which of the following images best represents the amount

of sodium required to completely react with all of the oxygen
in the above diagram according to the equation?

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Conceptual Connection 4.4 (2 of 2)
Under certain conditions, sodium reacts with oxygen to form
sodium oxide according to the reaction:

4 Na(s )  O2 (g )  2 Na2O(s )

Which of the following images best represents the amount

of sodium required to completely react with all of the oxygen
in the above diagram according to the equation?

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Conceptual Connection 4.5 (1 of 2)

Consider the generic chemical equation A  3B  2C.

Let circles represent molecules of A and squares represent
molecules of B. The diagram shown above represents the amount of
B available for reaction. Which diagram in the answer options
accurately represents the amount of A necessary to completely
react with B?

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Conceptual Connection 4.5 (2 of 2)

Consider the generic chemical equation A  3B  2C.

Let circles represent molecules of A and squares represent
molecules of B. The diagram shown above represents the amount
of B available for reaction. Which diagram in the answer options
accurately represents the amount of A necessary to completely
react with B?

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Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield,
Percent Yield
• Recall our pizza recipe:
1 crust  5 oz tomato sauce  2 cups cheese  1 pizza
• If we have 4 crusts, 10 cups of cheese, and 15 oz tomato sauce, how
many pizzas can we make?
1 pizza
We have enough crusts to make 4 crusts  4 pizzas
1 crust
1 pizza
We have enough cheese to make 10 cups cheese  5 pizzas
2 cups cheese
We have enough tomato sauce to make

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Limiting Reactant
• We have enough crusts for four pizzas, enough cheese
for five pizzas, but enough tomato sauce for only three
pizzas.
– We can make only three pizzas. The tomato sauce
limits how many pizzas we can make.

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Theoretical Yield
• Tomato sauce is the limiting reactant, the reactant that makes
the least amount of product.
– The limiting reactant is also known as the limiting reagent.
• The maximum number of pizzas we can make depends on this
ingredient. In chemical reactions, we call this the theoretical
yield.
– This is the amount of product that can be made in a chemical
reaction based on the amount of limiting reactant.
– The ingredient that makes the least amount of pizza
determines how many pizzas you can make (theoretical
yield).

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Percent Yield
Assume that while making pizzas, we burn a pizza, drop one on
the floor, or other uncontrollable events happen so that we make
only two pizzas. The actual amount of product made in a chemical
reaction is called the actual yield.
We can determine the efficiency of making pizzas by calculating
the percentage of the maximum number of pizzas we actually
make. In chemical reactions, we call this the percent yield.

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In a Chemical Reaction
• For reactions with multiple reactants, it is likely that one of the
reactants will be completely used before the others.
• When this reactant is used up, the reaction stops and no more
product is made.
• The reactant that limits the amount of product is called the limiting
reactant.
– It is sometimes called the limiting reagent.
– The limiting reactant gets completely consumed.
• Reactants not completely consumed are called excess reactants.
• The amount of product that can be made from the limiting reactant
is called the theoretical yield.

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Summarizing Limiting Reactant and
Yield (1 of 2)
• The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the reactant
that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction and limits
the amount of product.
• The reactant in excess is any reactant that occurs in a
quantity greater than is required to completely react with the
limiting reactant.

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Summarizing Limiting Reactant and
Yield (2 of 2)
• The theoretical yield is the amount of product that can
be made in a chemical reaction based on the amount of
limiting reactant.
• The actual yield is the amount of product actually
produced by a chemical reaction.
• The percent yield is calculated as follows:

actual yield
100%
theoretical yield

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Calculating Limiting Reactant,
Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
• Recall our balanced equation for the combustion of
methane:
CH4 (g )  2 O2 (g )  CO2 (g )  2 H2O(g )
– Our balanced equation for the combustion of methane
implies that every one molecule of CH4 reacts with two
molecules of O2.

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Combustion of Methane (3 of 4)
• If we have five molecules of CH4 and eight molecules of
O2, which is the limiting reactant?
CH4 (g )  2 O2 (g )  CO2 (g )  2 H2O(g )

– First we calculate the number of CO2 molecules that

can be made from five CH4 molecules.

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Combustion of Methane (4 of 4)
• Then we calculate the number of CO2 molecules that can
be made from eight O2 molecules.

– We have enough CH4 to make five CO2 molecules

and four CO2 molecules.
– Therefore, O2 is the limiting reactant, and four CO2
molecules is the theoretical yield.
– CH4 is in excess.
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Conceptual Connection 4.6 (1 of 2)
Nitrogen and hydrogen gas react to form ammonia
according to the reaction:

N2 (g )  3 H2 (g )  2 NH3 (g )

Which of the following images best represents the mixture in

the flask above after the reactants have reacted as completely
as possible? What is the limiting reactant? Which reactant is in
excess?

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Conceptual Connection 4.6 (2 of 2)
Nitrogen and hydrogen gas react to form ammonia
according to the reaction:

N2 (g )  3 H2 (g )  2 NH3 (g )

Which of the following images best represents the mixture in

the flask above after the reactants have reacted as completely
as possible? What is the limiting reactant? Which reactant is in
excess?

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Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield,
and Percent Yield from Reactant Masses (1 of 3)
• When working in the lab, we normally measure reactant
quantities in grams.
• To find the limiting reactant and theoretical yield, we must
first convert grams to moles.

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Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield,
and Percent Yield from Reactant Masses (2 of 3)
• A reactant mixture contains 42.5 g M g and 33.8 g O2.
ram illi ram ram

What is the limiting reactant and theoretical yield?

2 Mg(s )  O2 (g )  2 MgO(s )

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Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield,
and Percent Yield from Reactant Masses (3 of 3)

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Conceptual Connection 4.7 (1 of 2)
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form nitric acid and
nitrogen monoxide according to the equation:
3 NO2 (g ) + H2O(l )  2 HNO3 (l ) + NO(g )

Suppose that 5 mol NO2 and 1 mol H2O combine and react
completely. How many moles of the reactant in excess are
present after the reaction has completed?

a. 1 mol NO2 c. 2 mol NO2

b. 1 mol H2O d. 2 mol H2O

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Conceptual Connection 4.7 (2 of 2)
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form nitric acid and
nitrogen monoxide according to the equation:
3 NO2 (g ) + H2O(l )  2 HNO3 (l ) + NO(g )

Suppose that 5 mol NO2 and 1 mol H2O combine and react
completely. How many moles of the reactant in excess are
present after the reaction has completed?

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Combustion Reactions
• Combustion reactions are characterized by the reaction
of a substance with O2 to form one or more oxygen-
containing compounds, often including water.
– Combustion reactions also emit heat.
• For example, as you saw earlier in this chapter, natural gas
(CH4) reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water:

CH4 (g )  2 O2 ( g )  CO2 ( g )  2 H2O(g )

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Combustion
• Ethanol, the alcohol in alcoholic beverages, also reacts
with oxygen in a combustion reaction to form carbon
dioxide and water.

C2H5OH(l )  3 O2 ( g )  2 CO2 ( g )  3 H2O(g )

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Alkali Metal Reactions
• Reactions of alkali metals with nonmetals are vigorous.
– Sodium and chlorine form sodium chloride.

2 Na(s )  Cl2 (g )  2 NaCl(s )

• Alkali metals also react with water to form the dissolved

alkali metal ion, the hydroxide ion, and hydrogen gas.

2 M(s )  2 H2O(l )  2 M (aq )  2 OH (aq )  H2 ( g )

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Reactions of the Alkali Metals with Water

The reactions become progressively more vigorous as we

move down the group.

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Halogen Reactions
• The halogens all react with many metals to form metal
halides.

2 Fe(s )  3 Cl2 (g )  2 FeCl3 (s )

• The halogens also react with hydrogen to form hydrogen

halides.
H2 (g )  X2  2 HX(g )

• The halogens also react with each other to form

interhalogen compounds.

Br2 (l ) + F2 (g )  2 BrF(g )

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Three Halogens

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