Dental amalgam

Amalgam is an alloy of 2 or more metals

in which one of the constituents is
essentially Hg.
 CLASSIFICATION

Based on No. of alloyed materials

 Binary : Ag – Sn
 Ternary : Ag – Sn – Cu
 Quarternary : Ag-Sn-Cu-In
Based on Cu content
 High Cu (6-30%)
 Low Cu (Less than 6%)
III. Based on Zn content
Zn free (less than 0.01%)
Zn containing (0.01% or more)

IV. Based on Powder Particle size

Microcut
Fine cut
Coarse cut
 v. Based on composition .
Unicomposition (Same chemical
composition )
Admixed (spherical eutectic high Cu +
lathe cut low Cu) .

VI. Based on shape of powdered

particles .
Spherical.
Lathe cut .
Spheroidal.
VII. Based on addition of noble metals
Palladium
Gold
Platinum
Indium

VIII. Based on generation

1st Generation – 3 parts Ag +1 part Sn
(Peritectic)
2nd Generation–3 parts Ag+1 part Sn+Cu +
1% Zn
3rd Generation – blending spherical Ag-
Cu (Eutectic) to original powder
4th Generation – Alloy Cu to Ag & Sn
upto 29% ternary alloy
5th Generation - Ag + Cu + Sn + In
6th Generation – Alloy Pd (10%), Ag
(62%) & Cu(25%) to 1st, 2nd, 3rd
generation
 COMPOSITION

1. Low Cu alloy : Ag -
65%
Sn - 29%
Cu - 2 – 5% (<
6%)
Zn - 0 – 2%
2. High Cu alloy :
Admixed
Ag - 65 – 70%
Sn - 17%
Cu - 9 – 20%
• Single composition
• Ag - 60%
• Sn - 27%
• Cu - 13 – 30%
• Zn - 0 - 2%
 Functions of Individual Alloying
Metals
1. SILVER
• Whitens alloy
• Decreases Creep
• Increases strength
• Increases setting expansion
• Increase tarnish corrosion
• Decrease setting time
2. TIN
• Decreases setting expansion
• Decreases Strength
• Decrease tarnish resistance
• Increases setting time
3. COPPER
• Decreases brittleness
• Increases hardness
• Increases setting expansion
4. ZINC
• Scavenger
• Increases plasticity
• Decreases tarnish & corrosion
• Prevents oxidation of alloy during
manufacture .
5. PALLADIUM

Increases hardness

Whitens alloy

6. MERCURY
• Sometimes present in alloy powder in

range of 2 – 3% - PRE AMALGAMATED

ALLOY
Lathe cut / irregular particles:
Spherical alloys
A d va n ta g es: A d va n ta g es:
1. Lo n g e r w o rkin g 1 . S ets fa ste r.
tim e .
2. Le ss d im e n sio n a l 2 . Lo w e r re sid u a l
c h a n g e. m e rc u ry.
3. D isp la c em en t o f 3 . Lo w e r cre ep .
m a trix.
4 . Fa ster fin ish in g .
5 . H ig h er e a rly
stren g th .
6 . Lo w co n d e n sa tio n
p ressu re.
D isa d va n ta g e s: D isa d va n ta g e s:
1. S lo w er set. 1 . Le ss w o rkin g tim e.
2. H ig h resid u a l 2 . G rea te r
m e rc u ry. d im e n sio n a l
c h a n g e.
3. H ig h er c ree p .
4. Le ss e a rly
stren g th .
5. H a rd e r to fin ish .
Setting reaction
Basic Setting Reactions
• Conventional low copper amalgam
• Admixed high-copper alloys
• Single composition high-copper alloys
Conventional Low-Copper
Alloys

• Dissolution and precipitation

• Hg dissolves Ag and Sn Ag-Sn Alloy
from alloy Hg Hg

• Intermetallic compounds Ag
Sn Ag Ag
Sn
formed Ag-Sn Sn Ag-Sn
Alloy Alloy
Mercury
(Hg)

Ag3Sn + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag2Hg3 + Sn8Hg

  1 2
Conventional Low-Copper
Alloys

• Gamma () = Ag3Sn

Hg
• unreacted alloy Ag-Sn Alloy
• strongest phase and Hg
corrodes the least Hg
Ag
Sn Ag
• forms 30% of volume Ag
Sn
of set amalgam Ag-Sn Sn Ag-Sn
Alloy Alloy
Mercury

Ag3Sn + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag2Hg3 + Sn8Hg

  1 2
 Conventional Low-Copper
Alloys
• Gamma 2 (2) = Sn7Hg8
• weakest and softest phase Ag-Sn Alloy
• corrodes fast, voids form
• corrosion yields Hg which
reacts with more gamma () Ag-Sn
Ag-Sn Alloy
• 10% of volume Alloy 2
• volume decreases with time
due to corrosion

Ag3Sn + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag2Hg3 + Sn8HgSn Hg 7 8

  1 2
Conventional Low-Copper
Alloys
Ag3Sn + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag2Hg3 + Sn8Hg
   1  2

(30%) (60%) (10%)

Admixed High-Copper
Alloys
 Ag enters Hg from Ag-Cu
spherical eutectic
particles Ag-Cu Alloy
 Eutectic -the elements
are completely soluble in Hg Ag Ag Ag
Hg

liquid solution but Ag

separate into distinct Ag-Sn Sn
Sn
Ag-Sn
areas upon solidification Alloy Alloy
Mercury
 Both Ag and Sn enter Hg
from Ag3Sn particles

Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5

  1 
Preferential reaction of Cu with Sn eliminating SnHg
Admixed High-Copper Alloys

Sn Diffuses To Surface Of

Ag-cu Particles  Ag-Cu Alloy
Reacts With Cu To Form
(Eta) Cu6sn5 ()
Around Unconsumed Ag-Sn Ag-Sn
Ag-cu Particles Alloy Alloy

Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5

  1 
Admixed High-Copper Alloys

• Gamma 1 ( ) (Ag2Hg3)
1  Ag-Cu Alloy
surrounds () eta phase
(Cu6Sn5) and gamma ()
alloy particles (Ag3Sn)
Ag-Sn Ag-Sn
Alloy Alloy
1

Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5

  1 
Admixed High-Copper Alloys

Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Ag-Cu + Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5

  1 
 Single Composition High-
Copper Alloys

• Gamma sphere () (Ag3Sn)

with epsilon coating ()
(Cu3Sn)
• Ag and Sn dissolve in Hg

Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn + Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5

    1 
 Single Composition High-
Copper Alloys
• Gamma 1 (1) (Ag2Hg3) crystals
grow binding together partially-
dissolved gamma () alloy
particles (Ag3Sn) 

• Epsilon () (Cu3Sn) develops

crystals on surface of Ag-Sn Alloy
gamma particle (Ag3Sn) Ag-Sn Alloy

in the form of eta () (Cu6Sn5) 1

• reduces creep
• prevents gamma-2 formation

Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn + Hg Þ Ag3Sn + Cu3Sn + Ag2Hg3 + Cu6Sn5

    1 
Phillip’s Science of Dental Materials 2003
 Properties
Mercuroscopic Expansion
Expansion of amalgam at margins is also promoted
by Hg released from gamma 2 phase - Joergenson.
 This Hg re-reacts with gamma phase
MERCUROSCOPIC EXPANSION .
 Secondary expansion throughout clinical life
of an amalgam
 On non-occlusal surface entire restoration may
appear extruded.
 On occlusal surface the abrasion and attrition
tend to limit the overall extrusion.
 Occlusal margins become fracture
 susceptible ledges elevated from natural
contours of enamel
STRENGTH
 ANSI / ADA specification No.1 for
amalgam alloy minimum allowable
compressive strength 1hr after setting
when a cylindrical specimen is
compressed at a rate of 0.25mm/min is
80MPa
Compressive Strength
 Most favourable strength characteristic
 1 hr & 7 day compressive strength for amalgam

Amalgam 1hr 7 day

Low Cu 145 343

Admix 137 431

Single comp. 262 510

 Factors affecting strength

Trituration
Over trituration or under trituration
decreases strength of both old & new
high Cu alloys
Maximum strength achieved when
mixing continue till coherent mass of
matrix with interfaces formed
Effect of Hg content

Sufficient Hg mixed in alloy each alloy

particle wetted thoroughly otherwise dry
granular mix rough pitted surface
If sufficient Hg not present insufficient
matrix formation decreased strength
 Hg/ alloy ratio 48-52 %
Effect of Condensation
 Lathe cut increased condensation
required to squeeze out Hg
 Increase condensation pressure
decrease porosity & increased
strength
 Spherical alloy light condensation
pressure to reach adequate strength
CREEP
Creep rate correlate with marginal
breakdown of low Cu amalgams
 Creep rate of high Cu amalgams 0.4%
 Creep rate below 3% specified in
ANSI/ADA specification No.1
 Creep rate of low Cu amalgam range
between 0.8 – 8%
Influence of microstructure on creep
 gamma I exert primary influence on low
Cu amalgam creep rates
 Creep decreases with larger gamma I
grain size.
 gamma 2 higher creep rates
 MANIPULATION

Hg / Alloy Ratio

 To achieve smooth plastic amalgam
mixes Hg used in excess
 Excess Hg has deleterious effects
 To reduce amount of Hg
 Excess Hg squeezed out
 Reduce original Hg / alloy ratio
(Eames Tech/Minimal Hg Tech) [1:1]
 TRITURATION

Objective of Trituration :
 Attain workable plastic mass
 Rub of oxide films from alloy particles
 To pulverize pellets into particles
 To dissolve alloy in Hg for formation of
matrix crystals
 To keep matrix crystals as small as possible
 Mixing of alloy with Hg Trituration
traditionally Mortar & Pestle were used.
 Mechanical device amalgamator saves time
& standardizes procedure
Amalgamator:3 speeds :- Low- 3200 to
3400
 Medium-3700 to 3800
 High – 4000 to 4400
Mulling
To make mix homogenous
Mix enveloped in a dry piece of
rubber dam vigorously rubbed of
one hand and palm of another hand for
2–5 seconds
CONSISTENCY
Attainment of a proper mix controlled by
timing trituration

Under mixing
Appears dull
Crumbly and grainy in consistency
Rough surface after carving
Strength is less
Prone to tarnish and corrosion
Over Triturated
 Wet & plastic
 Difficult to remove from capsule
 Working time decreased
 Sets rapidly
 Increased contraction & increased creep
 Decrease strength
Normal Mix
 Wet & plastic
 Smooth, soft consistency with shiny
surface
 Good strength
 Mix is warm when removed from the
capsule
 Carved surface retain lusture
 CONDENSATION

Compacts alloy so that greatest possible

density attained
 Hg rich amalgam brought on top of
each increment
 Delayed condensation weaker
amalgam
 Good isolation in zinc containing
alloy
 Ultrasonic condensers not
recommended
 Increases strength, decreases creep
Irregular shaped alloy – small tip
condenser (1-2mm) increased
condensation force – vertical direction -
 Spherical alloy – large tip condenser-
lateral direction condensation & vertical
with vibration
 Admixed alloy small – medium, medium
to high force & vertical & lateral direction
 Condensation pressure
P inversely proportional to surface area
 Area of condenser point and forced
applied condensation pressure
 Smaller the condenser greater the
pressure
 3 – 4 lb average force applied –
condenser point 2mm diameter
BURNISHING

 Process of marginal adaptation of

amalgam
 Ball burnisher used in light strokes
from amalgam towards tooth
surface
 Undue pressure & heat generation
avoided during burnishing
 FAILURE OF RESTORATIONS

Tarnish & Corrosion

 Tarnish process in which a metal surface
loses its lusture and gets discoloured
 Surface discoloration formation of
oxides, sulphides or chloride on the
surface.
 Corrosion chemical or electrochemical
process by which metal undergoes actual
deterioration by reaction with
environment
Corrosion of Amalgam
 ¥2 phase most prone phase to
corrosion whereas ¥1 phase is resistant

Sn7 8Hg  21 O2  H2O  Cl  Sn4 OH6 Cl2  Hg

Cu6 Sn5  21 O2  H2O  Cl  CuCl2 . 3CuOH2  SnO

Delayed expansion (Secondary
expansion)
 Associated with Zn amalgam
 Reaction of Zn with water
 Absent in non Zn amalgam
 H2 produced by electrolytic action
involving Zn + H2O
 Zn + H2O ZnO + H2

Starts 3 – 5 days after placing restoration
Reaching values greater than 400µ (4%)
Pressure centered can go upto 2000
lb/sq inch
Marginal Ditching
 Most common evidence of
degradation of amalgam is
marginal fracture.
 Measured on basis of ‘Mahler’s
Scale’
 Amalgam Blues

Discoloured area seen through enamel in

teeth having amalgam restoration
 Bluish hue results from
 -Leaching of corrosion products of
amalgam into the dentinal tubules
 - colour of underlying amalgam seen
through translucent enamel
Amalgam Tattoo
 Macular bluish gray or black lesions on the
buccal mucosa, gingiva or palate, present
in vicinity of teeth with large amalgam
restorations.
 Due to
 - Iatrogenic mishap
 - Fragments gets deposited from
multiple tooth
extractions containing amalgams
 MERCURY TOXICITY

In nature Hg exists in three forms

 Elemental (Hg°)
 Inorganic – Mercurous (Hg+1) &
Mercuric (Hg+2)
 Organic – Methyl, ethyl & Phenyl
mercury salts
Hg release by high Cu < low Cu.
 Safe & Threshold levels of Mercury

Maximum level of occupational exposure

considered safe is 50mg Hg/m3 of air
 Maximum allowed concentration in blood –
5ng/ml of blood
 Maximum allowed concentration in urine –
15mg/1 to 20mg / 1 of urine
 Threshold value for workers in mercury
industry – 350 to 500mg Hg/m3 of air
DEVELOPMENTS IN AMALGAM

Gallium Alloys

• Gallium was one of the substitutes

suggested for mercury by
Puttkammer (1928)

• This direct filling material contains

no mercury.

• Based on ability of liquid gallium to

wet surfaces of many solids like Hg,
Disadvantages
1. Low resistance to corrosion
2. Gallium alloy & high Cu amalgam
placed in oral cavity, galvanic corrosion
with preferential corrosion of gallium alloy.
3. Difficult handling  wetting & adhesive
property
4. Gallium alloy dark residue on gloves
5. High cost
Hg free direct filling silver alloys

Daniel et al (1994)
Ag particles suspended in dil. Acid
solution
Physical properties showed higher
rupture strength than amalgam .
Consolidated silver – cold welded
system – rotary instrument for
contouring & finishing
Indium containing alloy & binary mercury –
Indium liquid alloy
Powell et al in 1989
Pure indium powder admixed into
dispersed phase high Cu alloy .
Decrease in mercury evaporation
As the amount of indium increased
from 0 to 14%  decrease in Hg vapour
.
 In 1986 Varga et al employed 4-META &

Panavia Ex Resin as the intermediate bonding

agents.

Masaka (1989)  Panvia Ex be abandoned in

in favour of 4 – META .

“AMALGAMBOND” was developed .

FEW MCQS
• Dimensional change in amalgam is

• a.Contraction
• b.Expansion
• c.Initial contraction than expansion
• d.Initial expansion and then contraction
 • DIMENSIONAL CHANGES OF AMALGAM

• INITIAL CONTRACTION : : 20 MINS FROM ONSET OF TRITURATION.

• This is due to Gamma 1 phase as its volume is less when compared to thje
reactant
• phases (Hg & Ag-Sn)

• PHASE OF EXPANSION :
• As Gamma 1 grows with sufficient Hg present outward thrust produces
expansion.

• Over all there is a net contraction with modern amalgams- high condensation
pressures, small particle sizes,….