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The invention of the transistor or semiconductor was probably the

most important development that lead to the personal computers
amazing growth and what we know of as modern day computers.
The Infinite Potential Well
 Thermionic emission
Emission of
electrons at high
temperatures
the electron
needs at least EF
+ φ energy in
order to escape
from the metal,
Energy is in
form of kinetic
energy
 Schottky
• The Schottky effect :Reductioneffect
in work function
due to (a) image force and (b) electric field

(a) Potential at metal–vacuum

The ‘image charge’ theorem. The effect of a plane
interface. A denotes the bottom of
conductor on the static field due to a charged
the potential well. (b) Potential
particle is equivalent to a second, oppositely
changed by image charge field.
charged, particle in the mirror image position

(c) Potential due to applied anode voltage in

vacuum region. (d) Total potential field
showing reduction in height of the potential
barrier compared with
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Decrease due to image and field

Field emission
If we increase the electric field
further, towards 109 V m–1, then
a new escape route opens up.
Instead of going over the potential
barrier, the electrons tunnel across
it. For high-enough electric fields
the barrier is thin, and thus
electrons may sneak through. This
is called field emission, and it is
practically independent of
temperature.

tunnelling current varies approximately

exponentially with barrier width
 The junction between two metals

 If two metals of different work functions are

brought into contact the situation is clearly
unstable.
 Electrons will cross higher to lower energy
states available. Leaving positive ion and
lower energy side negative charge
accumulated
 Consequently, an electric field is set up with a
polarity that hinders the flow of electrons
from left to right and encourages the flow of
electrons from right to left
 The potential difference between the two
metals, called the contact potential, is equal to
the difference between the two work
functions; or, in more general terms, the
potential difference may be obtained by
equating the Fermi levels of the two metal in
contact
 Kronig-Penney Model
 Consider what potentials an electron would see as it
moves through the lattice (limited to 1D for now). The
electrostatic potential, V(x) is periodic such that
V(x+L)=V(x).
 The Bloch theorem states that since the potential
repeats every “L” lengths, the magnitude of the
wavefunction (but not necessarily the phase) must also
repeat every “L” lengths.
 This is true because the probability of finding an
electron at a given point in the crystal must be the same
as found in the same location in any other unit cell
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The potential function of a Potential function for the case

single, noninteracting, one- when several atoms in close
electron atom is shown proximity are arranged in a one-
dimensional array
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 The potential functions of adjacent atoms overlap, and the net potential
function for this case is shown in above Figure .
 We need to solve this potential function from Schrodinger’s wave
equation to model a one-dimensional single-crystal material. Which will be
competed .
 So Kronig–Penney modeled as periodic potential function, which is used to
represent a one-dimensional single-crystal lattice.
 So it will solved using Schrodinger’s wave equation to estimate the
function in didfferent region
 As with previous quantum mechanical problems, the more interesting
solution occurs for the case when E less than V, which corresponds to a
particle being bound within the crystal.
 The electrons are contained in the potential wells, but we have the
possibility of tunneling between wells.
 The Kronig–Penney model is an idealized periodic potential representing a
one-dimensional single crystal, but the results will illustrate many of the
important features of the quantum behavior of electrons in a periodic
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Potential barrier
between the atoms

We simplify the
potential, in order to
be able to solve the
problem in any
simple manner.

We will eventually let

V and b0 in the
problem.
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• To obtain the solution to Schrodinger’s wave equation, we make use
of a mathematical theorem by Bloch. The theorem states that all
one-electron wave functions,for problems involving periodically
varying potential energy functions, must be of the form
• where magnitude of (x)
• The parameter k is called a constant of motion and will be
considered in more detail as we develop the theory. The function u (
x ) is a periodic function with period(a+b).
• The total solution to the wave equation is the product of the time-
independent solution and the time-dependent solution, or

• This traveling-wave solution represents the motion of an electron in

a single-crystalmaterial. The amplitude of the traveling wave is a
periodic function and the parameter k is also referred to as a wave
number.
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 where k is related to the quantum-mechanical
momentum and u (x) is a periodic function, called the
Bloch function, having the same period as V(x).
 A solution exists if k is related to the energy E by the
following equation

 Where f( a) = Cos ka

A plot of (a) the first term in Equation , (b) the second term, and (c) the entire function
f(a) The shaded areas show the allowed values of (a) corresponding to real values of
k
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 In order to find the E – k curve, we plot the right-hand side of above
eqn as a function of αa. Since the left-hand side of above eqn must
always be between +1 and –1, a solution exists only at those values of
E for which the right-hand side is between the same limits; that is,
there is a solution for the shaded region and no solution outside the
shaded region.
 Since α is related to E, this means that the electron may possess
energies within certain bands but not outside them. This is our basic
conclusion, but we can draw some other interesting conclusions
 If Vb is large, that is, if P is large, the function described by the
righthand side of above eqn crosses the +1, –1 region at a steeper
angle, as shown in Fig. Thus, the allowed bands are narrower and the
forbidden bands wider. In the limit P → ∞ the allowed band reduces to
one single energy level; that is, we are back to the case of the
discrete energy spectrum existing in isolated atoms. For P → ∞ it
follows sin αa = 0; that is, the permissible values of energy are here L
= a lattice distance so electron are bounded with nucleus
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The E versus k diagram
generated from. The allowed
energy bands and forbidden
energy bandgaps are
indicated.

In the limit P → 0, we get cos αa = cos ka; that is as for the free electron Thus, by varying P from
zero to infinity, we cover the whole range from the completely free electron to the completely
bound electron.
 Brillouin Zones
 Brillouin Zones are the permissible values of k
of an electron moving in one, two, three
dimensions in a periodic potential.
 Thus the energy spectrum of an electron moving
in a periodic potential consists of allowed bands
which are separated by forbidden bands.
 The energy bands of permissive values of k are
called Brillouin Zones
 If k= -/a to /a first Brillouin Zone
 If k= -2/a to 2/a Second Brillouin Zone cos ka =cos(ka +2n) =cos(ka -2n))
 If k= --3/a to 3/a Third Brillouin Zone
 Effective mass

• The mass of an electron in a crystal appears, in

general, different from the free-electron mass, and is
usually referred to as the effective mass
• The quantum mechanical part describes the velocity
of the electron in a one-dimensional lattice by its
group velocity

• The classical part expresses dE as the work done by a

classical particle travelling a distance, v gdt, under the
influence of a force eE yielding
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Hence for the free electron the slope 2E/ k2 is constant
so the mass is constant
But for the solid the curvature of 2E/ k2 is not constant
So the mass is not constant

Solid
Free Electron
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