COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION
 Major Topics for Today

1. Buses
2. I/O Controller
3. Registers
4. Caches
5. Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle
6. Pipelining
 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

• It deals with the hardware components of a computer system

such as the input/output devices, CPU and memory devices
HARDWARE
 ESSENTIAL COMPUTER HARDWARE

• Computers use the CRT Display “The Box”

same basic hardware

Keyboard

Mouse
 INSIDE THE BOX
Motherboard (RAM)

CPU
(Central Processing
Unit)

HDD
(Hard Disk Drive)
 MOTHER-BOARD

It holds together many of the crucial components of a computer

Parts of a Motherboard
1. A CPU socket
2. A power connector
3. Slots for RAM
4. A second chip that controls the input and output (I/O) functions
5. Slots for one or more hard drives
6. A read-only memory (ROM) chip
7. A slot for a video or graphics card
 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
• It is the brain of a computer system.
• Carries out instructions from the program.
• Performs the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output
operations.
• !!Remember that this is all about speed.
• Components
1. ALU
2. CU
3. Cache
 ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT- ALU

• An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital

circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic
operations.
• The control unit moves the data between
these registers, the ALU, and memory.
 HOW AN ALU WORKS
• Arithmetic operations Logic operations

• addition ●comparisons of values such

• Subtraction as
• Multiplication ●NOT
• division ●AND
●OR

• There are also circuits for multiplying, for comparing two

numbers, etc.
• Transistor switches are used to manipulate binary numbers
❖An open transistor represents a 0.
❖A closed transistor represents a 1.
 CONTROL UNIT (CU)

▪ One of the two basic components of CPU

▪ Acts as the central nervous system of a computer system
▪ Selects and interprets program instructions, and coordinates
execution
▪ Fetch 🡪 decode 🡪 execute 🡪 write back
▪ Has some special purpose registers and a decoder to perform
these activities
• !!The control unit moves the data between these registers, the
ALU, and memory.
 RAM&ROM

• Stores data or programs

• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Volatile
• Stores current data and programs
• More RAM results in a faster system
• 2 to 8 GB
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Permanent storage of programs
• Holds the computer boot directions
 STORAGE DEVICES

• Hold data and programs permanently

• Different from RAM
• Magnetic storage
• Floppy and hard drive
• Uses a magnet to access data
• Optical storage
• CD and DVD drives
• Uses a laser to access data
 I/O DEVICES

Allows the user to interact

• Some devices are input and output
• Touch screens
•Input Devices
• Any peripheral (piece of computer
hardware equipment) used to provide
data and control signals to a computer.
• Allows the user to put data into the
computer.
•Output Devices
•Any peripheral that deliver data
•Computer hardware equipment used to
communicate the results of data
processing carried out by a computer to
the outside world.
 I/O CONTROLLERS

• The main purpose of this system is to help in the interaction of

peripheral devices with the control units (CUs).

• Put simply, the I/O controller helps in the connection and control of
various peripheral devices, which are input and output devices.

• I/O controllers are also known as channel I/O, DMA controllers,

peripheral processors or I/O processors.
SOFTWARE
 SOFTWARE
• Tells the computer what to do
• Reason people purchase computers Software
• Two types
• System software
• Application software System Applicatio
• System software software n software
• Most important software
• Operating system
• Windows XP
Operatin Custom
• Network operating system (OS) g system built
• Windows Server 2003
• Utility
• Symantec Antivirus Utility
• Application software software Packaged
• Accomplishes a specific task software
• Most common type of software Device
• MS Word
• Covers most common uses of computers drivers
BASIC ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
BASIC ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
 VON NEUMANN BASIC STRUCTURE

• Let’s consider them in detail.

• Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• The arithmetic logic unit is that part of the
CPU that handles all the calculations the
CPU may need, e.g. Addition, Subtraction,
Comparisons.
• It performs Logical Operations, Bit Shifting
Operations, and Arithmetic Operation.
• Control Unit
• A control unit (CU) handles all processor
control signals. It directs all input and
output flow, fetches code for instructions
and controlling how data moves around
the system.
 COMPUTER BUS

Bus:
• Inside computers, there are many internal components. For
these components to communicate with each other they make
use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’ .
• A bus is a common pathway through which information flows
from one computer component to another. This pathway is used
for communication purpose and it is established between two or
more computer components.
• Types of Bus:
• Data bus is used for transfer of data between subunits
• Address bus is used to transmit location information between
units such as where the data is going or coming from.
• Control bus control working of other components. It is used to
provide information as to how data is being sent.
 REGISTERS

• Special memory units, called registers, are used to hold

information on a temporary basis as the instructions are
interpreted and executed by the CPU
• Registers are part of the CPU (not main memory) of a computer
and is super fast memory.
• The length of a register, sometimes called its word size, equals the
number of bits it can store
• With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with 32-bit
registers can process data twice larger than one with 16-bit
registers
 CPU REGISTERS

• Accumulator: Stores the results of calculations made by ALU.

• Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the memory location of the next
instructions to be dealt with. The PC then passes this next address to
Memory Address Register (MAR).
• Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the address of the location in
memory, which contains data, that is required by the current instruction
being executed. simply MAR points to the memory location that contains
data required.
• Memory Data Register (MDR): It stores instructions fetched from
memory or any data that is to be transferred to, and stored in, memory.
• Current Instruction Register (CIR): Holds the instruction currently
being executed or decoded.
• Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): The instruction that is not to be
executed immediately is placed in the instruction buffer register IBR.
 CPU REGISTERS

• General Purpose Registers:

Some registers can be used for more than one purpose. Such
registers are called general purpose registers.
 FETCH DECODE EXECUTE CYCLE

• Fetch :
• Get an instruction from main memory
• Decode:
• Translate it into computer command
• Execute:
• Actual processing of command
• Mem:
• Write result to memory.
FETCH DECODE EXECUTE CYCLE
 A FIVE-STEP CYCLE

• These operations are repeated in a

never-ending sequence

• A five-step cycle:
1.Instruction Fetch (IF)
2.Instruction Decode (ID)
3.Data Fetch (DF) / Operand
Fetch (OF)
4.Instruction Execution (EX)
5.Result Return (RR) / Store (ST)
ADD 800, 428, 884
 INSTRUCTION FETCH (IF)

• Execution begins by moving the instruction at the address given by

the (PC 2200) from memory to the control unit
• Once instruction is fetched, the PC can be changed for fetching the
next instruction
IF
 INSTRUCTION DECODE (ID)

• ALU is set up for the operation

• Decoder finds the memory address of the instruction's data
(source operands)
⮚ Most instructions operate on two data values stored in memory
(like ADD), so most instructions have addresses for two source
operands
⮚ These addresses are passed to the circuit that fetches them from
memory during the next step
⮚ Decoder finds the destination address for the Result Return step
and places the address in the RR circuit
⮚ Decoder determines what operation the ALU will perform (ADD),
and sets up the ALU
ID
 DATA FETCH (DF)

• The data values to be operated on are retrieved from memory

• Bits at specified memory locations are copied into locations in the
ALU circuitry
• Data values remain in memory (they are not destroyed)
DF
 INSTRUCTION EXECUTION (EX)

• For this ADD instruction, the addition circuit adds the two source
operands together to produce their sum
• Sum is held in the ALU circuitry
• This is the actual computation
EX
 RETURN RESULT (RR)

• RR returns the result of EX to the memory location specified by the

destination address.
• Once the result is stored, the cycle begins again
RR
 CYCLING THE FETCH/EXECUTE CYCLE

• ADD is representative of the complexity of computer instructions…

some are slightly simpler, some slightly more complex
• Computers achieve success at what they can do with speed.
• They show their impressive capabilities by executing many simple
instructions per second
 MEMORY

• Memory stores both the program while it is

running and the data on which the program
operates
• Properties of memory:
– Discrete locations
– Memory is organized as a sequence of discrete locations
– In modern memory, each location is composed of 1 byte (8 bits)
 MEMORY

• Addresses
– Every memory location has an address, whole numbers
starting at 0
• Values
– Memory locations record or store values
• Finite capacity
– Memory locations have a finite capacity (limited size),
– Data may not “fit” in the memory location
 BYTE-SIZE MEMORY LOCATION

• Common visualization of computer memory

• Discrete locations are shown as boxes holding 1-byte each

• Address of location is displayed above the box and the contents of

location is shown in the box
 BYTE-SIZE MEMORY LOCATION

• That 1-byte memory location can store one ASCII character or a

number less than 256
• Blocks of four bytes are used as a unit so often that they are
called memory words.
 RAM

• Computer memory is called random access

memory (RAM)
– “Random access” is out-of-date and simply means that
the computer can refer to the memory locations in any
order
• RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or
gigabytes (GB)
• Lots of memory is need to handle the space
required of programs and data
 MEMORY CAPACITY

▪ Memory capacity of a computer is equal to the number of bytes

that can be stored in its primary storage
▪ Its units are:
• Kilobytes (KB) : 1024 (210) bytes

• Megabytes (MB) : 1,048,576 (220) bytes

• Gigabytes (GB) : 1,073,741824 (230) bytes

 CONTROL UNIT-CU

• The control unit of a computer is where the Fetch/Execute Cycle

occurs
• Its circuitry fetches an instruction from memory and performs the
other operations of the Fetch/Execute Cycle on it
• A typical machine instruction has the form
ADD 4000, 2000, 2080
 TASK

• ADD 4000, 2000, 2080

– Looks like those three numbers should be added
together
– What it really means is that whatever numbers are
stored in memory locations 2000 and 2080 be added
together, and the result be stored in location 4000
TASK
 CACHES

• The data/instructions stored in RAM are retrieved faster than hard disks.
That’s why the data/instructions required by CPU is kept in RAM.

• There is another type of memory which is much faster than RAM. It’s
called cache. Some part of data/instructions currently required by CPU is
copied into cache from RAM.

• The CPU then gets instructions and data from caches.

• Caches are much smaller in capacity than RAMs.

• They are built-in on the CPU

 STORAGE HIERARCHY

• Capacity and access are

inversely proportional to
each other
 THE PROGRAM COUNTER (PC)

• How does the computer determine which

instruction it should execute next?
• Address of the Next Instruction
– The instruction is stored in memory and the computer
has its address
– Computers use the address (known as the program
counter or PC) to keep track of the next instruction
 THE PROGRAM COUNTER

• The computer gets ready to process the next instruction

• It assumes that the next instruction is the next instruction in
sequence
• Because instructions use 4 bytes of memory, the next instruction
must be at the memory address PC + 4 or 4 bytes further along the
sequence
 THE COMPUTER CLOCK

• Computers are instruction execution engines.

• Since the computer does one instruction per cycle in principle, the
speed of a computer depends on the number of Fetch/Execute
Cycles it completes per second.
 THE COMPUTER CLOCK

• The rate of the Fetch/Execute Cycle is determined by the

computer’s clock, and it is measured in megahertz, or millions
(mega) of cycles per second (hertz).
• A 1,000 MHz clock ticks a billion (in American English) times per
second, which is one gigahertz (1 GHz)
STANDARD PREFIXES
 COMPUTER’S VIEW OF SOFTWARE

• A program “sees” software as a long sequence of 4-byte

groups of bits
(0's and 1’s)

• This binary object file can be hundreds of thousands to millions of

words long
 COMPUTER’S VIEW OF SOFTWARE

• Once installed, the computer runs the

software by:
• copying the binary instructions into the RAM
• interpreting them using the Fetch/Execute Cycle.
• It does whatever the instructions tell it to do
 PIPELINING

Ignore the WB stage.

 RECOMMENDED

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