LIFE PROCESSES

D I AG RA MS
P A RT 3
Kerissa Solomon
THE EYE

01/27/2025 2
F U N C T I O N S O F T H E PA RT S O F T H E E Y E

The human eye is a complex organ responsible for the sense of vision. It
consists of several parts, each with specific functions. Here are the main
parts of the eye and their functions:
• Cornea: The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye. It acts as a
protective cover and also helps to focus light onto the retina.
• Iris: The iris is the colored part of the eye. It controls the size of the pupil,
which regulates the amount of light entering the eye. The iris also gives
the eye its color.
• Pupil: The pupil is the black, central opening in the middle of the iris. It
adjusts in size to control the amount of light that enters the eye.
• Lens: The lens is a transparent structure located behind the iris. It helps to
further focus light onto the retina and plays a crucial role in the eye's
ability to adjust and focus on objects at varying distances
(accommodation).
F U N C T I O N S O F T H E PA RT S O F T H E E Y E .
• Retina: The retina is the innermost layer of the eye, composed of
light-sensitive cells called photoreceptors. These photoreceptors,
known as rods and cones, detect light and convert it into electrical
signals that are sent to the brain for visual processing.
• Rods: Rod cells are responsible for detecting low levels of light and
are primarily responsible for night vision. They do not detect color
but are highly sensitive to changes in light intensity.
• Cones (Fovea): Cone cells are responsible for color vision and sharp
visual acuity. There are three types of cones, each sensitive to a
specific range of wavelengths corresponding to the primary colors
(red, green, and blue).
• Optic Nerve: The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers that carries
the electrical signals generated by the photoreceptors in the retina
to the brain for processing. This is how visual information is
transmitted from the eye to the brain.
F U N C T I O N S O F T H E PA RT S O F T H E E Y E
• Sclera: The sclera is the tough, white, outer layer of the eye. It helps maintain
the shape of the eye and provides protection.
• Choroid: The choroid is a layer of blood vessels and pigmented cells located
between the retina and the sclera. It supplies nutrients and oxygen to the
retina.
• Ciliary Muscle: The ciliary muscle is responsible for changing the shape of the
lens, which allows the eye to focus on objects at different distances. This
process is called accommodation.
• Aqueous Humour: A clear fluid called aqueous humour fills the front chamber of
the eye, providing nourishment to the cornea and lens and helping to maintain
the eye's shape.
• Vitreous Humour: The vitreous humour is a gel-like substance that fills the rear
chamber of the eye and helps maintain the shape of the eyeball.
Each part of the eye plays a specific role in the process of vision, from gathering
and focusing light to converting it into neural signals that the brain can interpret
as images. This complex system allows us to perceive the world around us.
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FUNCTION OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ORGANELLES

• The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs in the

body that secrete hormones to regulate various physiological processes.
Each part of the endocrine system plays a specific role in maintaining
homeostasis and controlling various functions in the body. Here are the
key parts of the endocrine system and their functions:
1.Hypothalamus: Located in the brain, the hypothalamus is often
considered the "master control center" of the endocrine system. It helps
regulate the release of hormones from the pituitary gland and controls
many autonomic functions, including body temperature, thirst, and
hunger.
2.Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): The pituitary gland is a small, pea-
sized organ at the base of the brain. It produces and releases a wide
range of hormones that control various other endocrine glands, including
growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone.
FUNCTION OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ORGANELLES
1.Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland, located in the neck, produces thyroid
hormones (T3 and T4) that regulate metabolism and affect almost every
cell in the body. It also produces calcitonin, which helps regulate calcium
levels in the blood.
2.Parathyroid Glands: These are four small glands located behind the
thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which helps
regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the blood.
3.Adrenal Glands: There are two adrenal glands, one on top of each
kidney. They produce several hormones, including cortisol (for stress
response and metabolism regulation), aldosterone (for salt and water
balance), and adrenaline (for the "fight or flight" response).
4.Pancreas: The pancreas serves both endocrine and exocrine functions.
The endocrine part consists of the islets of Langerhans, which produce
hormones such as insulin (regulates blood sugar levels) and glucagon
(raises blood sugar levels).
FUNCTION OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ORGANELLES

• Pineal Gland: The pineal gland, located in the brain, produces melatonin, a
hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and helps synchronize the
body's circadian rhythms.
• Ovaries (in females) and Testes (in males): These are responsible for
the production of sex hormones. In females, the ovaries produce estrogen
and progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and secondary sexual
characteristics. In males, the testes produce testosterone, which controls
male sexual development and function.
• Thymus Gland: The thymus is involved in the development of the immune
system, particularly in early life, and produces thymosin, which helps mature
and activate T-lymphocytes (T cells).
• Each of these parts of the endocrine system contributes to maintaining the
body's internal balance and ensuring that various physiological processes
are properly regulated. Hormones act as chemical messengers, traveling
through the bloodstream to target organs and tissues, where they exert their
effects.
 THE SKIN

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FUNCTION OF THE SKIN

• The skin has many different functions:

• It contains receptors that help you to be aware of your environment.  Its top
layer is waterproof, stopping water from evaporating from the cells underneath.
• It contains the brown pigment melanin, which absorbs ultraviolet light that
could damage the DNA in your cells.
• It helps to keep your temperature constant.
S U M M A RY O F T H E F U N C T I O N S O F T H E M A I N
PA RT S O F T H E S K I N

Structure Function

Epidermis Three layers of cells. The top layer is dead and

provides protection for the layer’s underneath. The
middle layer contains living cells. The bottom layer
divides continually to provide new cells for the
epidermis. The epidermis also contains specialised
cells called melanocytes. These produce the pigment
that gives skin its colour and protects again harmful
UV rays.

Sebaceous Gland Produces an oily substance called sebum. Sebum

prevents the skin from drying out and acts as a mild
antiseptic to destroy fungi and bacteria which would
otherwise infect the skin.

Sweat Gland Produces sweat which contains 99.5% water, 0.25%

urea and 0.25% sodium chloride.
T H E S K I N A N D T E M P E R AT U R E
R E G U L AT I O N
• The skin works together with receptors in the hypothalamus to control the
temperature. Any changes to the external temperature are sensed by the skin.
Changes in the temperature of the blood are sensed by the skin.
• When body temperature drops below the normal 37-degree Celsius, the hypothalamus
is activated. This sends a message (via the nerves) to the blood vessels in the skin
and they constrict (close up) to prevent heat loss. At the same time, the hairs on the
skin stand up so that they can act as insulation by trapping a layer of warm air next to
the skin. This is why you get goosebump when you get cold.
• If the body temperature falls further, messages are sent to the skeletal muscle and
they start to contract and relax very quickly; causing you to shiver. Shivering
generates heat and your body temperature rises as a result.
T H E S K I N A N D T E M P E R AT U R E
R E G U L AT I O N

• When your body temperature rises above normal, the

hypothalamus sends messages to the blood vessels to
make them dilate. This allows more blood to flow close
to the surface of the skin and more heat is lost to the
environment. The hypothalamus also activates the
sweat glands, so you sweat more. The evaporation of
sweat also helps to lower body temperature.
S U M M A RY O F T H E H O M E O S TAT I C F U N C T I O N S O F T H E
SKIN

Mechanism to encourage heat loss Mechanism to conserve heat

Increased blood flows through Decreased blood flow through
capillaries close to the skin to increase capillaries close to the skin surface to
heat loss from the skin surface. reduce heat loss from the skin surface

The amount of sweat produced by Less sweat produced, so heat loss by

sweat glands; increased heat lost as evaporation is reduced.
sweat evaporates

Hair lies flat against the body to reduce Hair stands up to trap and provide an
the insulating layer insulating layer next to the skin

Metabolic rate drops (we become less Metabolic rate rises to produce extra
active) so that less heat is produced in heat, shivering may occur in muscles to
the body generate more body heat
S U M M A R Y O F T H E H O M E O S TAT I C
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

• Besides its role in regulating temperature, the skin

also functions as a physical barrier between our
internal and external environments. The skin
prevents damage to underlying tissue, protects the
body from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays and
prevents harmful micro-organisms from entering
the body.
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FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The female reproductive system consists of several parts, each with its own
specific functions. Here's an overview of the main parts and their functions:
• Ovaries:
• Ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs.
• They produce and release eggs (ova) during the menstrual cycle.
• Ovaries also produce hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone, which
regulate the menstrual cycle and maintain secondary sexual characteristics.
• Fallopian Tubes (Uterine Tubes):
• These are two narrow tubes that extend from the ovaries to the uterus.
• They capture and transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
• Fertilization typically occurs in the fallopian tubes when sperm meets an
egg.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Uterus (Womb):
• The uterus is a muscular organ where a fertilized egg (embryo) implants and develops during
pregnancy.
• If fertilization doesn't occur, the lining of the uterus is shed during menstruation.
• Cervix:
• The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects it to the vagina.
• It produces cervical mucus, which changes in consistency during the menstrual cycle to
facilitate or inhibit sperm movement into the uterus.
• Vagina:
• The vagina is a muscular tube that connects the cervix to the external genitalia.
• It serves as a passageway for menstrual blood to exit the body and for the delivery of a baby
during childbirth.
• It also plays a role in sexual intercourse
FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
• Vulva:
• The vulva includes the external female genitalia, such as the labia, clitoris, and vaginal
opening.
• The labia protect the vaginal and urethral openings.
• The clitoris is a sensitive organ important for sexual arousal and pleasure.
• Mammary Glands (Breasts):
• While not directly part of the reproductive system, the mammary glands play a role in
nourishing newborns.
• They produce and release milk to feed infants during breastfeeding.
• Hormones:
• The female reproductive system is regulated by hormones, including estrogen and
progesterone.
• These hormones control the menstrual cycle, ovulation, and the development of secondary
sexual characteristics, such as breast development and body hair.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• The female reproductive system is complex

and essential for the reproduction and
continuation of the human species. It also
plays a significant role in a woman's overall
health and well-being, influencing aspects
of her physical and emotional health.
THE Follicle Stimulating Hormone LUTEINIZING HORMONE

MENSTRUAL
CYC L E

Graafian Follicle
H O R M O N E S F O R R E G U L AT I N G T H E
M E N S T R U A L CYC L E
• The menstrual cycle is regulated by a complex interplay of hormones, primarily
produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries. These hormones
work together to control the different phases of the menstrual cycle.
• Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): It stimulates the growth and development
of ovarian follicles in the ovaries. FSH also promotes the production of
oestrogen by the developing follicles.
• Oestrogen: Oestrogen is primarily produced by the growing ovarian follicles,
particularly the dominant one. It plays a central role in the menstrual cycle by
promoting the thickening of the uterine lining (endometrium) and initiating
ovulation. It also helps maintain the health of the female reproductive organs.
H O R M O N E S F O R R E G U L AT I N G T H E
M E N S T R U A L CYC L E
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH is another hormone released by the anterior
pituitary gland in response to GnRH. It triggers ovulation, which is the release
of a mature egg (oocyte) from the ovary. After ovulation, LH stimulates the
formation of the corpus luteum, which is a temporary endocrine structure that
produces progesterone.
• Progesterone: Progesterone is primarily produced by the corpus luteum, a
structure that forms from the remnants of the ovarian follicle after ovulation.
Progesterone is important for preparing the uterine lining for potential embryo
implantation and maintaining a pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur,
progesterone levels drop, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining during
menstruation.
H O NO U RA B L E M E NT I ON H O R M O N E S OF
T H E M E N S T R U A L C YC L E .
• Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH): GnRH is produced by the
hypothalamus and acts as the initial trigger for the menstrual cycle. It
stimulates the pituitary gland to release gonadotropins, which are essential for
the development and maturation of ovarian follicles.
• Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): If fertilization and implantation of a
fertilized egg occur, the developing embryo secretes hCG, which helps maintain
the corpus luteum and thus progesterone production. This supports the early
stages of pregnancy
 The MALE Reproductive System

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 FUNCTION OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Testes: Produce sperm through spermatogenesis.
• Epididymis: Store and mature sperm.
• Vas Deferens: Transport mature sperm to the urethra for ejaculation.
• Seminal Vesicles: Produce seminal fluid, which nourishes and supports sperm.
• Prostate Gland: Produces additional seminal fluid for sperm protection and mobility.
• Urethra: Allows both urine and sperm to exit the body.
• Penis: Used for copulation during sexual intercourse.
• Scrotum: Regulates testes' temperature for spermatogenesis.
• Spermatic Cord: Supports testes and contains blood vessels, nerves, and vas deferens for
sperm transport.
These functions collectively enable the male reproductive system to produce, transport,
and deliver sperm for fertilization during sexual activity.
THE PREGNANT WOMAN
PREGNANCY

• During pregnancy, various parts of a woman's body and her

reproductive system undergo significant changes and have
specific functions to support the development and
nourishment of the growing fetus. Here are some of the key
parts and their functions in a pregnant woman:
• Uterus: The uterus is the organ where the fertilized egg
implants and the fetus develops. During pregnancy, it
expands and provides a protected environment for the
developing fetus.
• Placenta: The placenta is an organ that forms in the uterus
and serves as a connection between the mother and the
fetus. It provides oxygen, nutrients, and removes waste
products from the fetus.
PREGNANCY
• Amniotic Fluid: This is the fluid that surrounds the fetus within
the amniotic sac. It provides protection and cushioning for the
developing fetus.
• Ovaries: While the ovaries are not directly involved in
pregnancy, they are responsible for producing hormones like
estrogen and progesterone, which play crucial roles in
maintaining the pregnancy.
• Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that
connects to the vagina. During pregnancy, it seals off to
protect the fetus from potential infections.
• Vagina: The vagina plays a role in the birth process, allowing
the baby to pass from the uterus to the outside world during
labor.
PREGNANCY
• Breasts: The breasts undergo changes to prepare for
breastfeeding. Hormones trigger the growth of milk-producing
glands and ducts.
• Hormones: Various hormones, such as human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), estrogen, and progesterone, are produced
in higher quantities during pregnancy to support the growth
and development of the fetus, maintain the uterine lining, and
prevent menstruation.
• Cardiovascular System: The heart and blood vessels work
harder during pregnancy to supply increased blood flow to the
uterus and placenta.
• Kidneys: The kidneys filter waste products from the mother's
and the fetus's blood and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance.
PREGNANCY
• Digestive System: Changes in the digestive system can cause
symptoms like nausea and constipation during pregnancy. The body
also absorbs nutrients more efficiently to support the growing fetus.
• Respiratory System: The diaphragm rises due to the growing uterus,
which can affect lung capacity. Breathing may become shallower,
and women may experience shortness of breath.
• Endocrine System: The endocrine system produces various
hormones that regulate metabolism, blood sugar levels, and other
essential functions.
• Immune System: The immune system undergoes changes to protect
the developing fetus while still providing some defense against
infections.
PREGNANCY

• It's important to note that the entire body undergoes

various changes to support a healthy pregnancy. These
changes are orchestrated by a complex interplay of
hormones and physiological adaptations to ensure the
well-being of both the mother and the developing fetus.
Additionally, healthcare professionals monitor and provide
care throughout pregnancy to ensure a safe and
successful outcome.
Male
Parts

Female
Parts

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F U N C T I O N O F PA RT S O F T H E F L O W E R

• A typical flower consists of several parts, each with its own

specific function in the reproductive process of the plant.
Here are the main parts of a flower and their functions:
• Sepals: Sepals are the outermost parts of the flower and
are typically green. Their main function is to protect the
inner parts of the flower in the bud stage.
• Petals: Petals are the colourful, often fragrant parts of the
flower. They serve to attract pollinators, such as insects or
birds, to the flower. This is important for the transfer of
pollen and, thus, for fertilization.
F U N C T I O N O F PA RT S O F T H E F LO W E R
• Stamens: Stamens are the male reproductive organs of the
flower. They consist of two parts: the filament and the anther.
The anther produces pollen, which contains the male gametes
(sperm).
• Carpels (or Pistils): Carpels are the female reproductive organs
of the flower. They consist of three main parts: the stigma, style,
and ovary. The stigma is the receptive surface for pollen. The
style is a slender tube that connects the stigma to the ovary.
The ovary contains the ovules, which are the female gametes
(eggs).
• Stigma: The stigma is the top part of the carpel, and its function
is to capture pollen from pollinators. It has a sticky surface that
allows pollen to adhere to it.
F U N C T I O N O F PA RT S O F T H E F L O W E R
• Style: The style is a slender tube that connects the
stigma to the ovary. It provides a pathway for pollen
to travel from the stigma to the ovules in the ovary.
• Ovary: The ovary is the enlarged base of the carpel,
and it contains one or more ovules. After fertilization,
the ovary develops into a fruit, protecting and
nourishing the seeds as they develop.
• Ovules: Ovules are the female reproductive
structures within the ovary. They contain the egg
cells and are fertilized by the pollen, leading to the
formation of seeds.
F U N C T I O N O F PA RT S O F T H E F L O W E R
• Nectaries: Some flowers have nectar-secreting structures
called nectaries. Nectar is a sugary substance that
attracts pollinators and serves as a reward for their
assistance in pollination.
• Receptacle: The receptacle is the thickened part of the
stem to which all the flower parts are attached. It
provides support and attachment for the other flower
parts.
• Each of these parts plays a crucial role in the flower's
reproductive process, ensuring the transfer of pollen,
fertilization, and the development of seeds, which are
essential for the plant's reproduction and genetic
diversity.
F U N C T I O N S O F T H E PA RT S O F T H E F R U I T

• A fruit has several parts, and each part serves a specific function:
• Seed: The seed is the mature fertilized ovule inside the fruit. Its primary
function is reproduction, as it contains the genetic information needed to grow
a new plant. When the fruit is dispersed, the seed may germinate and develop
into a new plant.
• Pericarp: The pericarp is the fruit's outermost layer, which encases and protects
the seed(s). It can be divided into three layers: the exocarp (outermost layer),
mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (innermost layer). The pericarp helps in
the protection and dispersal of the seeds.
F U N C T I O N S O F T H E PA RT S O F T H E F R U I T

• Flesh or Pulp: The flesh or pulp of a fruit is the edible part that
surrounds the seed(s). It is often rich in nutrients, sugars, and
water, making it attractive to animals that may eat the fruit and aid
in seed dispersal.
• Skin or Peel: The skin or peel is the outer covering of the fruit. It
provides protection to the internal fruit tissues and can vary in
thickness and texture depending on the type of fruit.
• Stem or Pedicel: The stem or pedicel is the part of the fruit that
connects it to the plant. It serves as a support structure and a
conduit for nutrients and water to reach the developing fruit.
F U N C T I O N S O F T H E PA RT S O F T H E F R U I T

• Calyx: The calyx is the cluster of sepals at the base of the fruit. While
it is more associated with the flower, in some fruits, the calyx may
persist and serve a protective role, covering the fruit's base.
• Stigma, Style, and Ovary: These parts are typically associated with
the flower, not the fruit, and play a role in pollination and fertilization.
However, in some fruits, remnants of these floral parts may be
present.
• Fibers and vascular tissue: Some fruits, like bananas, have fibers
running through their flesh, which may serve structural support or
storage functions. Vascular tissue, like phloem and xylem, can be
found in some fruits to transport nutrients and water.
F U N C T I O N S O F T H E PA RT S O F T H E F R U I T

It's important to note that not all fruits have

all of these parts, and the specific functions
may vary depending on the type of fruit and
the plant species. The main purpose of a fruit
is to protect and aid in the dispersal of seeds,
ensuring the plant's reproductive success.
THE SEED