A2.

2 Cell structure
Unity and Diversity – Cells
A2.2.1
Cells as the basic structural unit of all living organisms

• Deductive reasoning can be used to generate predictions from

theories.

What Is Deductive Reasoning? | Explanation & Examples (scribbr.com

)
 Cell theory
• Cytology is the branch of • Cell theory:
biology that studies all facets
of the cell. Very active • All organisms are composed of
research in laboratories all one or more cells
over the world.
• Based on cell theory, a newly • Cells are the smallest unit for life.
discovered organism can be
predicted to consist of one or • Al cells come from pre-existing
more cells cells.
A2.2.2
Microscopy skills

• Students should have experience of

making
• temporary mounts of cells and tissues
• Staining
• measuring sizes
• using an eyepiece graticule
• focusing with coarse and fine
adjustments
• calculating actual size and magnification
• producing a scale bar
• taking photographs.
• Students should appreciate that
measurement using instruments is a
form of quantitative observation.
The Microscope (hawaii.edu )
LAB
• Get to know the microscope
• Learn the names of all parts of the
microscope and their functions.
• Make your own slide.
• Stain
• Look at already made slides.
 Converting units
m dm cm mm ‘’ ‘’ um ‘’ ‘’ nm
Magnification
A2.2.3
Developments in microscopy

• Advantages of electron
microscopy
• Freeze fracture
• Cryogenic electron
microscopy
• Fluorescent stains and
immunofluorescence in light
microscopy
Update - - Diamond Light Source
Difference between magnification
and resolution
• Magnification is the increase in • Resolution refers to the minimal
an object’s image size compared distance between two points or
to the actual size. objects at which they can still be
distinguished as two.

about binoculars magnification (vghju.cf)

Microscopy – GCSE Biology (Combined Science) Edexcel Revision – Study Roc

ket
 Light microscope vs. Electron
microscope
Type of microscope Advantages Disadvantages
Basic light microscope • Could look at both living and • Limited magnification (up to
• Beam of light dead specimens. 2000x)
• Stains may be used to improve
the visibility of structures
• Inexpensive.
• Simple and easy specimen
preparation.

Electron microscopes (Ems) • Provide greater magnification • Expensive to purchase

• Beam of electrons passing (could magnify over 100,000x) • Expensive to operate
through a specimen to form • High resolution. • Complex preparation specimen
an image. preparation.
• Can only observe dead material
that is fixed in plastic material.
 Development in microscopy
Since Robert Hooke used the first microscope in 1665
Type of microscope Explanation Visualization
Freeze fracture in A process of preparing a sample for
electron microscopy observation with an EM. Rapid Microvilli-Freeze Fracture Replica (TEM).jpg | Central Microscopy
Research Facility (uiowa.edu)

freezing folloved by physical

breaking the specimen (fracturing)

Cryogenic electron Enables an image to be formed using

microscopy computer enhancement that shows the
three-dimensional framework of
proteins involved with the functions of
a cell.

Fluorescent stains in Substances or dyes that combine with

light microscopy specific cellular components. The parts
that accepted the dye will fluoresce
when irradiated with UV or violet-blue
light.
Immunofluorescence Greater visability of living tissue.
in light microscopy Specific antibodies combined with
uniques coloured dyes recognize and
combine with target molecules.
A2.2.4
Structures common to cells in all living organisms

• Typical cells have

• DNA as genetic material
• Cytoplasm composed mainly of
water
• Plasma membrane composed
of lipids.

Cells and Cell Structure - Earth Site Education (earth-site.co.uk)

A2.2.5 • Include these cell components:
• cell wall
Prokaryote cell
• plasma membrane
structure • Cytoplasm
Prokaryotic cells occur in bacteria and
archaea. • naked DNA in a loop
• 70S ribosomes.

2.2 Prokaryotic Cells | BioNinja

Cell wall in prokaryotic cells
• Cell wall is made up of
Peptidoglycan (carbohydrate-
protein complex)

Prokaryote structure (article) | Khan Academy

Capsule
• Capsule
• Some bacteria have and additional
layer of a type of polysaccharide
outside the cell wall.
• The capsule makes it possible for
some bacteria to adhere to
structures such as teeth, skin and
food.

What is a capsule in a prokaryotic cell? - Quora

Plasma membrane in prokaryotic
cells

Prokaryotic Cell Structure | Sciencing

Cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells
• In prokaryotes, cytoplasm simply means everything
found inside the plasma membrane.
• One major component of the cytoplasm in both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the gel-like cytosol, a
water-based solution that contains ions, small
molecules, and macromolecules.
DNA in prokaryotic cells
• DNA is:
• Naked, no histone proteins
involved.
• Circular DNA
• Extra DNA - plasmid

Prokaryotic Genetics | BioNinja

Ribosomes in Prokaryotes
• Ribosomes:
• 70S ribosomes (two subunits)

Biological illustration of prokaryotic ribosome and eukaryotic ribosome (70s ribosome and 80s riboso
me) Stock-
vektor | Adobe Stock
 Gram-positive eubacteria
• The type of prokaryotic cell structure required
is:

• Gram-positive eubacteria such as

Bacillus and Staphylococcus.

• Gram-positive bacteria are bacteria

classified by the color they turn in the
staining method. The staining
method uses crystal violet dye, which
is retained by the thick peptidoglycan
cell wall found in gram-positive
organisms
What Is Gram Positive Bacteria and How Do We Kill It? (gree
nplanetscientific.com)

Students should appreciate that prokaryote cell structure varies. Students are
not required to know details of the variations such as the lack of cell walls in
phytoplasmas and mycoplasmas.
A2.2.6
Eukaryote cell structure occur in organisms such as algae, protozoa, fungi, plants and animals.

• Features common to eukaryote cells:

• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• 80S ribosomes
• A nucleus with chromosomes made of
DNA bound to histones
• Membrane-bound cytoplasmic
organelles
• Mitochondria
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus and a variety of vesicles
or vacuoles
• Lysosomes
• a cytoskeleton of microtubules and
microfilaments. What is one function of the cytoskeleton in a eukaryotic cell? - Quora
Functions of the different parts in a
eukaryotic cell
• Plasma membrane
• Controls entry and exit

The Cell Membrane - Structure - Function - TeachMePhysiology

 Cytoplasm

• Cytoplasm
• In the region where organelles are
found.
• The fluid porsion of the cytoplasm
is called the cytosol

Cytoplasm (genome.gov)
 Ribosomes
• Ribosomes, 80S
• Consists of RNA and protein
• Site of protein synthesis.
• Free ribosomes produce
ribosomes that will be used inside
the cell.

Ribosomes - Structure And Functions | A-Level Biology Revision Notes (alevelbiology.co Ribosomes - Structure And Functions | A-Level Biology Revision Notes (alevelbiology.co.uk)
.uk)
 Nucleus
• A nucleus
• Contains chromosomes made of
DNA bound to histones
• Contains most of the cell’s DNA

Nucleus | Biology for Majors I (lumenlearning.com)

Centrioles
• Centrioles are:
• Associated with nuclear division.
• Composed of microtubules.
• They are found in an area called
centrosome.
• Centrioles are found in all
eukaryotic cells (but absent in
higher plant cells)

Centriole (genome.gov)
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria
• Site of aerobic cellular respiration.

Mitochondria and the art of DNA maint Cellular Respiration (biology-pages.info)

enance (phys.org)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
is a network of flattened sacs and
branching tubules that extends
throughout the cytoplasm in plant
and animal cells. These sacs and
tubules are all interconnected.
• Site of protein synthesis
• Proteins to be used outside of
the cells + lysosomes

Molecular Expressions Cell Biology: Endoplasmic Reticulum (fsu.edu)

• Smoth endoplasmic reticulum
• Is involved in the synthesis
and storage of lipids,
including cholesterol and p
hospholipids, which are
used in the production of
new cellular membrane.

Difference Between Golgi Apparatus and Endoplasmic Reticulum | Compare the Differe
nce Between Similar Terms
• Golgi apparatus
• Modifies and packs proteins
into membrane-
bound vesicles inside the cell
before the vesicles are sent to
their destination.

Describe with the help of a diagram the structure o

f Golgi body and state its function. (vedantu.com

)
• Lysosomes
• A lysosome is a membrane-
bound cell organelle that
contains digestive enzymes.
• Lysosomes are involved with
various cell processes:
• They break down excess or worn-
out cell parts.
• They may be used to destroy
invading viruses and bacteria.
• If the cell is damaged beyond
repair, lysosomes can help it to
self-destruct in a process called Lysosomes (Structure, Definition, Function

programmed cell death, or & Diagram) (byjus.com)

apoptosis.
• A cytoskeleton of microtubules
and microfilaments.
• Eukaryotic cytoplasm contain
cytoskeleton (fibres and rods)
• The cytoskeletal elements are
microfilaments, intermediate
filaments and microtubules.
Microfilaments are made of the
protein actin, intermediate filaments
are made of a variety of proteins
including keratin, and microtubules
are made of tubulin

Plant Life: Cytoskeleton (lifeofplant.blogspot.com)

A2.2.7
Processes of life in unicellular organisms

• Include these functions:

• Metabolism
• Response to stimuli
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Excretion
• Homeostasis
• Nutrition
• Movement
A2.2.8
Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between animals, fungi and plants

• Include presence and

composition of cell walls,
differences in size and
function of vacuoles,
presence of chloroplasts and
other plastids, and presence
of centrioles, cilia and
flagella.

• Differences and Similarities betw

een Plant Cell, Animal Cell and B
acterial Cell or Prokaryotic cell - Today’s Objectives TSW distinguish between plant and animal cells and diagram them. TSW

YouTube distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. - ppt video online download (slideplayer.com)
A2.2.9
Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes

• Numbers of nuclei:
• Cell structure in aseptate
fungal hyphae
• Skeletal muscle
• Red blood cells
• Phloem sieve tube elements.

1.1 Introduction to cells | heymisterlee

A2.2.10
Cell types and cell structures viewed in light and electron micrographs

• AOS: Students should be able to identify cells

in light and electron micrographs as
prokaryote, plant or animal. In electron
micrographs, students should be able to
identify these structures:
• Nucleoid region
• Prokaryotic cell wall
• Nucleus
• Mitochondrion
• Chloroplast, sap vacuole
• Golgi apparatus
• Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Chromosomes
• Ribosomes
• Cell wall
• Plasma membrane
• Microvilli.
A2.2.11
Drawing and annotation based on electron micrographs

• AOS: Students should be able to

draw and annotate diagrams of
organelles (nucleus, mitochondria,
chloroplasts, sap vacuole, Golgi
apparatus, rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
and chromosomes) as well as
other cell structures (cell wall,
plasma membrane, secretory
vesicles and microvilli) shown in
electron micrographs. Students are
required to include the functions in
their annotations.
Techniques in Electron Microscopy of Animal Tissue - N. F. Cheville, J.
Stasko, 2014 (sagepub.com)