A2.

2 Cell structure
Unity and Diversity – Cells
A2.2.1
Cells as the basic structural unit of all living organisms

• Deductive reasoning can be used to generate predictions from

theories.

What Is Deductive Reasoning? | Explanation & Examples (scribbr.com

)
 Cell theory
• Cytology is the branch of • Cell theory:
biology that studies all facets
of the cell. Very active • All organisms are composed of
research in laboratories all one or more cells
over the world.
• Based on cell theory, a newly • Cells are the smallest unit for life.
discovered organism can be
predicted to consist of one or • Al cells come from pre-existing
more cells cells.
A2.2.2
Microscopy skills

• Students should have experience of

making
• temporary mounts of cells and tissues
• Staining
• measuring sizes
• using an eyepiece graticule
• focusing with coarse and fine
adjustments
• calculating actual size and magnification
• producing a scale bar
• taking photographs.
• Students should appreciate that
measurement using instruments is a
form of quantitative observation.
The Microscope (hawaii.edu )
LAB
• Get to know the microscope
• Learn the names of all parts of the
microscope and their functions.
• Make your own slide.
• Stain
• Look at already made slides.
 Converting units
m dm cm mm ‘’ ‘’ um ‘’ ‘’ nm
Magnification
A2.2.3
Developments in microscopy

• Advantages of electron
microscopy
• Freeze fracture
• Cryogenic electron
microscopy
• Fluorescent stains and
immunofluorescence in light
microscopy
Update - - Diamond Light Source
Difference between magnification
and resolution
• Magnification is the increase in • Resolution refers to the minimal
an object’s image size compared distance between two points or
to the actual size. objects at which they can still be
distinguished as two.

about binoculars magnification (vghju.cf)

Microscopy – GCSE Biology (Combined Science) Edexcel Revision – Study Roc

ket
 Light microscope vs. Electron
microscope
Type of microscope Advantages Disadvantages
Basic light microscope • Could look at both living and • Limited magnification (up to
• Beam of light dead specimens. 2000x)
• Stains may be used to improve
the visibility of structures
• Inexpensive.
• Simple and easy specimen
preparation.

Electron microscopes (Ems) • Provide greater magnification • Expensive to purchase

• Beam of electrons passing (could magnify over 100,000x) • Expensive to operate
through a specimen to form • High resolution. • Complex preparation specimen
an image. preparation.
• Can only observe dead material
that is fixed in plastic material.
 Development in microscopy
Since Robert Hooke used the first microscope in 1665
Type of microscope Explanation Visualization
Freeze fracture in A process of preparing a sample for
electron microscopy observation with an EM. Rapid Microvilli-Freeze Fracture Replica (TEM).jpg | Central Microscopy
Research Facility (uiowa.edu)

freezing folloved by physical

breaking the specimen (fracturing)

Cryogenic electron Enables an image to be formed using

microscopy computer enhancement that shows the
three-dimensional framework of
proteins involved with the functions of
a cell.

Fluorescent stains in Substances or dyes that combine with

light microscopy specific cellular components. The parts
that accepted the dye will fluoresce
when irradiated with UV or violet-blue
light.
Immunofluorescence Greater visability of living tissue.
in light microscopy Specific antibodies combined with
uniques coloured dyes recognize and
combine with target molecules.
A2.2.4
Structures common to cells in all living organisms

• Typical cells have

• DNA as genetic material
• Cytoplasm composed mainly of
water
• Plasma membrane composed
of lipids.

Cells and Cell Structure - Earth Site Education (earth-site.co.uk)

A2.2.5 • Include these cell components:
• cell wall
Prokaryote cell
• plasma membrane
structure • Cytoplasm
Prokaryotic cells occur in bacteria and
archaea. • naked DNA in a loop
• 70S ribosomes.

2.2 Prokaryotic Cells | BioNinja

Cell wall in prokaryotic cells
• Cell wall is made up of
Peptidoglycan (carbohydrate-
protein complex)

Prokaryote structure (article) | Khan Academy

Capsule
• Capsule
• Some bacteria have and additional
layer of a type of polysaccharide
outside the cell wall.
• The capsule makes it possible for
some bacteria to adhere to
structures such as teeth, skin and
food.

What is a capsule in a prokaryotic cell? - Quora

Plasma membrane in prokaryotic
cells

Prokaryotic Cell Structure | Sciencing

Cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells
• In prokaryotes, cytoplasm simply means everything
found inside the plasma membrane.
• One major component of the cytoplasm in both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the gel-like cytosol, a
water-based solution that contains ions, small
molecules, and macromolecules.
DNA in prokaryotic cells
• DNA is:
• Naked, no histone proteins
involved.
• Circular DNA
• Extra DNA - plasmid

Prokaryotic Genetics | BioNinja

Ribosomes in Prokaryotes
• Ribosomes:
• 70S ribosomes (two subunits)

Biological illustration of prokaryotic ribosome and eukaryotic ribosome (70s ribosome and 80s riboso
me) Stock-
vektor | Adobe Stock
 Gram-positive eubacteria
• The type of prokaryotic cell structure required
is:

• Gram-positive eubacteria such as

Bacillus and Staphylococcus.

• Gram-positive bacteria are bacteria

classified by the color they turn in the
staining method. The staining
method uses crystal violet dye, which
is retained by the thick peptidoglycan
cell wall found in gram-positive
organisms
What Is Gram Positive Bacteria and How Do We Kill It? (gree
nplanetscientific.com)

Students should appreciate that prokaryote cell structure varies. Students are
not required to know details of the variations such as the lack of cell walls in
phytoplasmas and mycoplasmas.
A2.2.6
Eukaryote cell structure occur in organisms such as algae, protozoa, fungi, plants and animals.

• Features common to eukaryote cells:

• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• 80S ribosomes
• A nucleus with chromosomes made of
DNA bound to histones
• Membrane-bound cytoplasmic
organelles
• Mitochondria
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus and a variety of vesicles
or vacuoles
• Lysosomes
• a cytoskeleton of microtubules and
microfilaments. What is one function of the cytoskeleton in a eukaryotic cell? - Quora
Functions of the different parts in a
eukaryotic cell
• Plasma membrane
• Controls entry and exit

The Cell Membrane - Structure - Function - TeachMePhysiology

 Cytoplasm

• Cytoplasm
• In the region where organelles are
found.
• The fluid porsion of the cytoplasm
is called the cytosol

Cytoplasm (genome.gov)
 Ribosomes
• Ribosomes, 80S
• Consists of RNA and protein
• Site of protein synthesis.
• Free ribosomes produce
ribosomes that will be used inside
the cell.

Ribosomes - Structure And Functions | A-Level Biology Revision Notes (alevelbiology.co Ribosomes - Structure And Functions | A-Level Biology Revision Notes (alevelbiology.co.uk)
.uk)
 Nucleus
• A nucleus
• Contains chromosomes made of
DNA bound to histones
• Contains most of the cell’s DNA

Nucleus | Biology for Majors I (lumenlearning.com)

Centrioles
• Centrioles are:
• Associated with nuclear division.
• Composed of microtubules.
• They are found in an area called
centrosome.
• Centrioles are found in all
eukaryotic cells (but absent in
higher plant cells)

Centriole (genome.gov)
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria
• Site of aerobic cellular respiration.

Mitochondria and the art of DNA maint Cellular Respiration (biology-pages.info)

enance (phys.org)
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
is a network of flattened sacs and
branching tubules that extends
throughout the cytoplasm in plant
and animal cells. These sacs and
tubules are all interconnected.
• Site of protein synthesis
• Proteins to be used outside of
the cells + lysosomes

Molecular Expressions Cell Biology: Endoplasmic Reticulum (fsu.edu)

• Smoth endoplasmic reticulum
• Is involved in the synthesis
and storage of lipids,
including cholesterol and p
hospholipids, which are
used in the production of
new cellular membrane.

Difference Between Golgi Apparatus and Endoplasmic Reticulum | Compare the Differe
nce Between Similar Terms
• Golgi apparatus
• Modifies and packs proteins
into membrane-
bound vesicles inside the cell
before the vesicles are sent to
their destination.

Describe with the help of a diagram the structure o

f Golgi body and state its function. (vedantu.com

)
• Lysosomes
• A lysosome is a membrane-
bound cell organelle that
contains digestive enzymes.
• Lysosomes are involved with
various cell processes:
• They break down excess or worn-
out cell parts.
• They may be used to destroy
invading viruses and bacteria.
• If the cell is damaged beyond
repair, lysosomes can help it to
self-destruct in a process called Lysosomes (Structure, Definition, Function

programmed cell death, or & Diagram) (byjus.com)

apoptosis.
• A cytoskeleton of microtubules
and microfilaments.
• Eukaryotic cytoplasm contain
cytoskeleton (fibres and rods)
• The cytoskeletal elements are
microfilaments, intermediate
filaments and microtubules.
Microfilaments are made of the
protein actin, intermediate filaments
are made of a variety of proteins
including keratin, and microtubules
are made of tubulin

Plant Life: Cytoskeleton (lifeofplant.blogspot.com)

A2.2.7
Processes of life in unicellular organisms

• Include these functions:

• Metabolism
• Response to stimuli
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Excretion
• Homeostasis
• Nutrition
• Movement
Unicellular organisms have uniques ways of
carrying out the life functions compared to
multicelllular organisms
• Cell membrane
• Controles the movement of materials in and out
to maintain homeostasis.
• Vacuoles
• Store waste so it does not harm
• Carries out digestion to provide nutrition.
• Mitochondria or areas of enzymes allow
energy production:
• Energy for the functions of life
• Ribosomes:
• Protein synthesis, building blocks for growth and
repair.
• Cilia or Flagella: ERROR: The request could not be satisfied (collegedunia.com)

• Movement and response to changes in the

environment.
A2.2.8
Differences in eukaryotic cell structure between animals, fungi and plants

• Include presence and

composition of cell walls,
differences in size and
function of vacuoles,
presence of chloroplasts and
other plastids, and presence
of centrioles, cilia and
flagella.

• Differences and Similarities betw

een Plant Cell, Animal Cell and B
acterial Cell or Prokaryotic cell - Today’s Objectives TSW distinguish between plant and animal cells and diagram them. TSW

YouTube distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. - ppt video online download (slideplayer.com)
Differences in eukaryotic cell structure
between animals, fungi and plants
Plant cells Animal cells Fungal cells
Cell wall of cellulose No cell wall Cell wall of chitin
Plasma membran inside cell wall Plasma membrane Plasmam membrane inside cell wall
Chloroplasts present in cytoplasm No chloroplasts No chloroplasts
Central vacuole, carbohydrate No large vacuole. Small vacuoles with many unique
storage. Small if present; unique functions functions.
Carbohydrates stored as starch Carbohydrates stored as glycogen Carbohydrates stored as glycogen
No cilia, flagella or basal bodies May have cilia or flagella with May have cilia or flagella, but do
(usually) associated basal bodies. not have associated basal bodies.

Fixed, often angular shape Flexible and often rounded shape Some degree of flexibility of shape
Possess centrosomes but no Possess both centrosomes and Possess centrosomes but no
centrioles. centrioles. centrioles.
A2.2.9
Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes (Size, number of nuclei…)

• Cell structure in aseptate

fungal hyphae
• Skeletal muscle
• Red blood cells
• Phloem sieve tube elements

1.1 Introduction to cells | heymisterlee

A2.2.10
Cell types and cell structures viewed in light and electron micrographs

• AOS: Students should be able to identify cells

in light and electron micrographs as
prokaryote, plant or animal. In electron
micrographs, students should be able to
identify these structures:
• Nucleoid region
• Prokaryotic cell wall
• Nucleus
• Mitochondrion
• Chloroplast, sap vacuole
• Golgi apparatus
• Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Chromosomes
• Ribosomes
• Cell wall
• Plasma membrane
• Microvilli.
A2.2.11
Drawing and annotation based on electron micrographs

• AOS: Students should be able to

draw and annotate diagrams of
organelles + know the function
• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Chloroplasts
• sap vacuole
• Golgi apparatus
• rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
• chromosomes
• cell wall
• plasma membrane
• secretory vesicles and microvilli)
Techniques in Electron Microscopy of Animal Tissue - N. F. Cheville, J.
Stasko, 2014 (sagepub.com)
A2.2.12
Origin of eukaryotic cells by endosymbiosis (HL)

• Evidence suggests that all eukaryotes evolved

from a common unicellular ancestor that had a
nucleus and reproduced sexually.
• Mitochondria then evolved by endosymbiosis. In
some eukaryotes,
• Chloroplasts subsequently also had an
endosymbiotic origin.
• Evidence should include the presence in
mitochondria and chloroplasts of 70S ribosomes,
naked circular DNA and the ability to replicate.
•
NOS: Students should recognize that the
strength of a theory comes from the observations
the theory explains and the predictions it
supports. A wide range of observations are Endosymbiosis- Definition, 5 Examples, Theory, Significances (microbenotes.com)

accounted for by the theory of endosymbiosis.

A2.2.13
Cell differentiation as the process for developing specialized
tissues in multicellular organisms (HL)

• Students should be aware

that the basis for
differentiation is different
patterns of gene expression
often triggered by changes in
the environment
Cell Differentiation | BioNinja
A2.2.14
Evolution of multicellularity (HL)

• Students should be aware

that multicellularity has
evolved repeatedly. Many
fungi and eukaryotic algae
and all plants and animals are
multicellular. Multicellularity
has the advantages of
allowing larger body size and
cell specialization. Mulitcellular Organisms (universe-review.ca)
A2.3.1 Characteristics of viruses HL
• Relatively few features are
shared by all viruses:
• Small
• Fixed size
• Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
• Capsid (made up of protein)
• No cytoplasm
• Few or no enzymes

Viruses Dead or alive?. Viral structure Viruses are not cells. Basic structure: –Protein
coat –Nucleic acid core (RNA or DNA)- controls production of. - ppt download (slidep
layer.com)
Epidemic: when a pathogen spreads over a large geographical area
Pandemic: An epidemic that has gone global and displays exponential
growth.

• Past pandemics:
• Black Death 1346-1353, due to a
bacteria, Yersinia pestis, killed
25million people.
• Spanish Flue 1919-1920, influenza
virus, killed more than 50 million
people.
• Aids (from 1981), due to the virus
HIV, killed 35 million lives so far.
Pathogens | BioNinja
• Asian Flu 1957-1958, influenza
virus, killed more than 1.1 million
people.
A2.3.2 Diversity of structure in
viruses
• Viruses are highly diverse in their
shape and structure:
• DNA or RNA
• Single or double stranded.

• Most commom Virus examples

include:
• Polyhedral (adenovirus)
• Spherical (influenza, corona, HIV)
• Helical (tobacco mosac virus)
• Complex (bacteriophage)
 Bacteriophage, Lamda
• Important features about
lambda:
• Capsid head to protect double
stranded DNA
• Tail fibres to attach virus to host
cell
• Tail sheath, made of proteins, to
inject DNA into host cell (through
the cell membrane).

MANXYZ permease Step 4 - Lambda phage - Wikipedia

 Coronaviruses

• Important features of
coronaviruses are:
• Spherical shape
• Single-stranded RNA
• Envelope outside capsid
• Spike proteins on the envelope
creating a «corona».

Virus: Structure and Symmetry - Online Biology Notes

 HIV
• Important features about HIV:
• Envelope outside the capsid
• Two identical single RNA strands
inside the capsid.
• Reverse transcriptase converts
RNA to DNA (Retrovirus)
• Spikes on the envelope are made
up of proteins and carbohydrates

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Overview- CUSA

BIO
A2.3.3 Lytic cycle of a virus
• Viruses rely on a host cell for
energy supply, nutrition, protein
synthesis and other life
functions.
• Here you see the bacteriophage
lambda as an example of the
phases in a lytic cycle.

Bacteriophage- Definition, Structure, Life Cycles, Applications, Phage Therapy

(microbenotes.com)
A2.3.4. Lysogenic cycle of a virus
• Bacteriophage lambda is used as
a example.

Explain the regulation of gene expression in the lytic and lysogenic pathway
of
Lambda phage - Wikipedia
bacteriaophage. | Homework.Study.com
Lysogenic cycle in a bacteriophage

Lysogenic Cycle - Definition, Structure, Steps, Examples and FAQs (geeksfor

geeks.org)

Lysogenic hi-res stock photography and images - Alamy

A2.3.5 Evidence for several origins
of viruses from other organisms
• The diversity of viruses suggest
several possible origins.
• Viruses share an extreme forms of
obligate parasitism as a mode of
existence, so the structural
features that they have in
common could be regarded as
convergent evolution.
• The genetic code is shared
between viruses and living
organisms.
• Each one of the above hypothesis has to overcome serious challenges
to gain adequate credibility.
• All could be correct – and all could not be correct…

• There may have been different origins for viruses at different times
(convergent origin).
• Some interesting common structural functional and gentic features of viruses
that indicate convergent evolution may have occurred to a certain extent.
• Evidence that are suggest convergent evolution include the fact that
all viruses:
• Are obligate parasites, noe can replicate or carry out the functions for life.
• Have a proein outer boundary, the capsid, with no cytoplasm.
• Have gentic material, DNA or RNA, inside the capsid, and the code of this
genetic material is shared between viruses and all of Earth’s organisms.
A2.3.6 Rapidly evolving viruses
• Consider reasons for very rapid
rates of evolution in some
viruses.
• Use two examples of rapid
evolution.
• Evolutions of influenza viruses and
of HIV.
• Consider the consequences for
treating diseases caused by rapidly
evolving viruses.
Recombination of gentic material in
viruses