Chapter 3 – Loads

and Load effects

Concrete materials and structures chair

Loads on Structures
o Classification of loads
• Area of application: Concentrated,
Distributed (UDL)
• Direction: Vertical (Gravity), Horizontal
(Lateral)
• Response: Static, Dynamic
• Variation with time: Permanent (Dead),
Variable (Live, wind)
 Loads on
Structures
oClassification of loads in Building Codes
• Permanent (Dead)
• Variable (Live)
• Environmental Loads
Earthquake (Seismic)
Wind
Snow
Rain
 ES EN 1998:2015
DESIGN OF STRUCTURES FOR
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE
PART 1: General Rules – Seismic Actions
and Rules for Buildings
 Scope of ES EN
1998:2015
o The purpose is to ensure that, in an event of an
earthquake:
• human lives are protected,
• damage is limited, and
• structures important for civil protection remain operational.
 Note that the random nature of seismic events and the limited
resource available to counter their effects makes the attainment of
these goals partially possible and only measurable in probabilistic
terms.
o Special structures, such as nuclear power plants,
offshore structures and large dams, are beyond the
scope of ES EN
 Parts of ES EN
1998:2015
o ES EN 1998 - Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
• ES EN1998-1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for
buildings
• ES EN1998-2: Bridges
• ES EN1998-3: Assessment and retrofitting of buildings
• ES EN1998-4: Silos, tanks and pipelines
• ES EN1998-5: Foundations, retaining structures and
geotechnical aspects
• ES EN1998-6: Towers, masts and chimneys
Sections of ES EN 1998-
1:2015
o ES EN1998-1: General rules, seismic actions and rules
for buildings is subdivided in 10 following sections
1. General introduction
2. Performance requirements and compliance criteria
3. Ground conditions and seismic action, combinations
4. General design rules for buildings
5. Specific rules for Concrete buildings
6. Specific rules for Steel buildings
7. Specific rules for Composite Steel-Concrete buildings
8. Specific rules for Timber buildings
9. Specific rules for Masonry buildings
ES EN 1998-1:2015 – Section 2 Fundamental
Requirements
o Structures in seismic region shall be designed & constructed to
meet the following two requirements with adequate reliability:
»No collapse requirement
• Design ground acceleration 475 years return period (10%
probability in 50 years)
 Withstand the design seismic action without local or global collapse
 Retain structural integrity and residual load bearing capacity after the
seismic event

»Damage limitation requirement

• Design ground acceleration 95 years return period (10%
probability in 10 years)
 Withstand a more frequent seismic action without damage
 Avoid limitations of use with high costs
ES EN 1998-1:2015 Compliance Criteria
o In order to satisfy the fundamental requirements the
following limit states shall be checked
»Ultimate limit states (ULS)
• ULS are those associated with collapse or with other forms of
structural failure which might endanger the safety of people.
»Damage limitation states (DLS)
• DLS are those associated with damages beyond which
specified service requirements are no longer met.
»Special measures
• In order to limit the uncertainties and promote good behavior
of structures for larger EQ, pertinent specific measures shall
be taken.
ES EN 1998-1:2015 Compliance Criteria
o Reduced or simplified design procedures for well
defined categories of structures of low seismicity cases
(ag < 0.08g)
o No application of ES EN 1998 for very low seismicity
cases (ag< 0.04g)
ES EN 1998-1:2015 Compliance Criteria
o Ultimate limit states (ULS)
• Resistance and Energy dissipation capacity verification of the
structural system
• Appropriate Behavior factor values for the different ductility
classes
• Overturning and sliding stability check
• Resistance of foundation elements and foundation soil without
substantial permanent deformations
• Second order effects shall be taken in to account
• Non detrimental effect of non structural elements
ES EN 1998-1:2015 Compliance Criteria
o Damage limitation state (DLS)
• Deformation limits (Maximum inter-storey drift due to the
“frequent” earthquake):
 0.5 % for brittle non structural elements attached to the structure
 0.75 % for ductile non structural elements attached to the
structure
 1.0 % for non structural elements not interfering with the
structure
• Sufficient stiffness of the structure for the operationality of vital
services and equipment
• DLS may control the design in many cases
ES EN 1998-1:2015 Compliance Criteria
o Specific Measures
• Simple and regular forms (plan and elevation)
• Control the hierarchy of resistances and sequence of failure
modes(capacity design procedures)
• Avoid brittle failure modes
• Control the behavior of critical regions (detailing)
• Use adequate structural model (soil deformability and non
structural elements if appropriate)
• Non detrimental effect of non structural elements
»In zones of high seismicity and structures of special
importance, formal quality system plans for Design,
Construction and Use is recommended.
 ES EN 1998-1:2015 – Section 3
Ground Conditions and Seismic Action
o Ground Conditions
• Appropriate investigation shall be carried out to identify
the ground condition
• Depending on the importance class of the structure and
particular condition of the project, ground investigation
and/or geological studies to be performed to determine
the seismic action
• Ground types A, B, C, D and E given table 3.1 (next slide)
may be used to account for the influence of local ground
conditions on the seismic action.
 Parameters
Ground type Description of stratigraphic profile NSPT
vs,30 (m/s) (blows/30cm)
cu (kPa)
Rock or other rock-like geological
A formation, including at most 5 m of weaker > 800 _ _
material at the surface.
Deposits of very dense sand, gravel, or very
stiff clay, at least several tens of meters in
B 360 – 800 > 50 > 250
thickness, characterized by a gradual
increase of mechanical properties with depth.
Deep deposits of dense or medium-dense
C sand, gravel or stiff clay with thickness from 180 – 360 15 - 50 70 - 250
several tens to many hundreds of meters.
Deposits of loose-to-medium cohesionless
soil (with or without some soft cohesive
D < 180 < 15 < 70
layers), or of predominantly soft-to-firm
cohesive soil.
A soil profile consisting of a surface
alluvium layer with vs values of type C or D
E and thickness varying between about 5 m
and 20 m, underlain by stiffer material with
vs > 800 m/s.
Deposits consisting, or containing a layer at
least 10 m thick, of soft clays/silts with a < 100
S1 _ 10 - 20
high plasticity index (PI > 40) and high (indicative)
water content
Deposits of liquefiable soils, of sensitive
S2 clays, or any other soil profile not included
in types A – E or S1
ES EN 1998-1:2015 Compliance Criteria
o Seismic Actions
• National territories shall be subdivided into seismic zones
depending on the local hazard
• The hazard is described by the reference peak ground
acceleration (PGA) on type A ground, agr
• The seismic hazard map of the Ethiopia is shown in the
next slide
Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia (1995)
Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia (2015)
Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia (2015)
Town Longitud Latitude Zone PGA Zone PGA
e [N] [E] EBCS (ao/g) ES EN (ao/g)
1995 EBCS 2015 ES EN
1995 2015
Addis 38.7645 8.9757 2 0.05 3 0.1
Ababa
Adama 39.2682 8.5386 4 0.1 4 0.15
Ankober 39.7710 9.5573 4 0.1 5 0.2
Arba 37.5474 6.0030 4 0.1 3 0.1
Minch
Assaita 41.4713 11.5849 4 0.1 5 0.2
Bishoftu 38.9883 8.7468 4 0.1 4 0.15
Debre 39.5565 9.6235 4 0.1 4 0.1
Birhan
Dessie 39.6707 11.0474 4 0.1 3 0.1
Dire Dawa 41.8389 9.5034 2 0.05 3 0.1
Hawassa 38.4741 7.0080 4 0.1 4 0.15
 Representation of Seismic Action
in ES EN 1998-1:2015
o Elastic response spectrum
• Horizontal elastic response spectrum
• Vertical response spectrum
• Design spectrum for elastic analysis
o Time-history representation
• Artificial accelerograms
• Recorded or simulated accelerograms
• Spatial model of the seismic action
o Combination of the seismic action with other
actions
 Horizontal Elastic response
spectrum ES EN 1998-1:2015
o Elastic Response Spectrum o Horizontal elastic Response Spectrum

 T 
0 T TB : S e T  ag S 1   2.5  1
 TB 
TB T TC : Se T  ag S  2.5

T 
TC T TD : S e T  ag S  2.5  C 
T 
T T 
TD T 4 s : Se T  ag S  2.5  C 2D 
 T 

damping correction   10 5    0.55

factor
 Horizontal Elastic response
spectrum ES EN 1998-1:2015
where
• Se(T) is the elastic response spectrum;
•T is the vibration period of a linear single-degree-of-freedom system;
• ag is the design ground acceleration on type A ground (ag = γIagR);
• TB is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch;
• TC is the upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch;
• TD is the value defining the beginning of the constant displacement
response range of the spectrum;
•S is the soil factor;
• is the damping correction factor with a reference value of η = 1 for
5% viscous damping, see (3) of this sub clause.
• is the viscous damping ratio of the structure, expressed as a
 Horizontal Elastic response
spectrum ES EN 1998-1:2015
• If deep geology is not accounted for, the recommended
choice is to use two types of spectra: type 1 and type 2.
Design spectrum parameters: Type 1
High and moderate seismicity region Ms > 5.5
Ground type S TB(s) TC(s) TD(s)
A (rock) 1.0 0.15 0.4 2.0
B (Very stiff soil) 1.2 0.15 0.5 2.0
C (medium stiff) 1.15 0.20 0.6 2.0
D (soft soil) 1.35 0.20 0.8 2.0
E (thin soft soil over
 Horizontal Elastic response
spectrum ES EN 1998-1:2015

• Elastic response spectra for 5% damping

for Type 1
 Horizontal Elastic response
spectrum ES EN 1998-1:2015
Design spectrum parameters: Type 2
Low seismicity region Ms ≤ 5.5; near field earthquakes

Ground type S TB(s) TC(s) TD(s)

A (rock) 1.0 0.05 0.25 1.2

B (Very stiff soil) 1.35 0.05 0.25 1.2

C (medium stiff) 1.5 0.10 0.25 1.2

D (soft soil) 1.8 0.10 0.30 1.2

E (thin soft soil over
rock) 1.6 0.05 0.25 1.2
 Horizontal Elastic response
spectrum ES EN 1998-1:2015

• Elastic response spectra for 5% damping

for Type 2
 Vertical Elastic response
spectrum ES EN 1998-1:2015
o Elastic Response Spectrum o Vertical elastic Response Spectrum
 T 
0 T TB : S ve T  avg  1   3.0  1
 TB 
TB T TC : Sve T  avg  3.0
T 
TC T TD : S ve T  avg  3.0  C 
T 
 T T 
TD T 4 s : S ve T  avg  3.0  C 2 D 
 T 

Spectrum avg/ag TB (s) TC (s) TD (s)

Type 1 0.90 0.05 0.15 1.0

Type 2 0.45 0.05 0.15 1.0

 Design response
spectrum ES EN 1998-
o Design Response1:2015
Spectrum o Design Response Spectrum
 2 T  2.5 2  
0 T TB : Sd T  ag S      
 3 TB  q 3  
2.5
TB T TC : Sd T  ag S  
q
 2.5  TC 
ag S   
TB T TC : Sd T   q T 
  a
 g

 2.5  TC TD 
ag S  
TD T : Sd T   q  T 2 
  a
 g
 q (behavior factor) varies from
1.5 to 6
 Design response
spectrum ES EN 1998-
where 1:2015
• a , S, T , T
g B C and TD are as defined in previous slides;
• S (T)
d is the design spectrum;
•q is the behaviour factor;
•β is the lower bound factor for the
horizontal design spectrum.
(The recommended value for β is 0,2. )
 Elastic Design
Spectrum EBCS 8:1995
Normalized Elastic Response Spectra
3

Spectral acceleration / Ground acceleration:

2.5

soil class A
1.5
soil class B
bo

soil class C
1

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Period T (sec)
 Time History
representation ES EN
1998-1:2015
o Alternative representations of the seismic action
o Time history representation (essentially for NL analysis
purposes)
o Three simultaneously acting accelerograms
• Artificial accelerograms
 Match the elastic response spectrum for 5% damping
 Duration compatible with Magnitude (T s ≥ 10 s)
 Minimum number of accelerograms: 3
• Recorded or simulated accelerograms
 Scaled to ag S.
 Match the elastic response spectrum for 5% damping
 ES EN 1998-1:2015 -
Section 4 Design of
Buildings
o Characteristics of earthquake resistant buildings
 Basic principle of conceptual design
 Criteria for structural regularity
 Combination coefficients for variable action
 Importance classes and importance factors
• Structural Analysis
 Modelling
 Method of Analysis
 Basic principles of conceptual
design
o The guiding principle in conceptual design against
seismic hazard are:
 structural simplicity
 uniformity and symmetry
 bidirectional resistance and stiffness
 torsional resistance and stiffness
 diaphragmatic action at storey level
 adequate foundation
Consequence of structural regularity
on seismic analysis and design
Behaviour
Regularity Allowed Simplification
factor
Elevatio Linear-elastic (for linear
Plan Model
n Analysis analysis)
Yes Yes Planar Lateral forcea Reference value
Yes No Planar Modal Decreased value
No Yes Spatialb Lateral forcea Reference value
No No Spatial Modal Decreased value
a Fundamental period < 2 s or 4 Tc
b Under specific condition, planar models in each direction
may be used
 Regularity in Plan
• symmetric in plan w.r.t. 2 orthogonal directions
• Plan configuration shall be compact (i.e floor
area delimited by a polygonal convex line). Set-
backs ≤ 5% of the floor area.
• In-plane stiffness of floors sufficiently large
compared to stiffness of vertical elements. L, C,
H, I and X plan shapes should be carefully
examined.
• Slenderness of plan dimensions λ = Lmax / Lmin ≤ 4
where Lmax and Lmin are larger and smaller plan dimensions,
measured in orthogonal directions
 Regularity in Plan (cont’d)
• At each level and for each direction of
analysis x and y
eox≤0.3.rx
rx ≥ ls
Where,
eox = distance between center of stiffness and center
of mass
rx = torsional radius

ls = radius of gyration of the floor mass

 Regularity in elevation

• All lateral load resisting systems run without

interruption from foundation to top.
• Both lateral stiffness & mass of story's remain
constant or reduce gradually without abrupt changes
• ratio of actual storey resistance to required
resistance should not vary disproportionately
between adjacent storeys.
 Regularity in elevation (cont’d)
• When setbacks
are present:
 Importance classes and importance
factors
Importa Buildings Importan
nce ce factor
class
I Buildings of minor importance for public
safety, e.g. agricultural buildings, etc. 0.8
Ordinary buildings, not belonging in the
II other categories. 1.0
III Buildings whose seismic resistance is of
importance in view of the consequences
associated with a collapse, e.g. schools,
assembly halls, cultural institutions etc. 1.2
IV Buildings whose integrity during
earthquakes is of vital importance for civil
protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations, power
plants, etc. 1.4
• The combination
Combination coefficients for
coefficients ψ 2i (for the quasi-permanent
value of variable action qi) for the design of buildings shall be
those given in ES ENvariable
1900:2015,action
Annex A1
• The combination coefficients ψEi shall be computed from the
following expression
𝜓𝐸𝑖 = 𝜑𝜓2𝑖

Type of variable Storey 

action
Categories A-C* Roof
Storeys with correlated 1.0
occupancies Independently 0.8
occupied storeys 0.5
Categories D-F*
and Archives 1.0
 Modelling in ES EN 1998-
1:2015
o The model shall adequately represent the distribution of
stiffness and mass
o The model should account for:
• The contribution of joint region to the deformability of the
bldg..
• The deformability of the foundation
• The effect of cracking on the stiffness of concrete, composite
and masonry buildings..
 Unless a more accurate analysis of the cracked element is
performed, the flexural and shear stiffness properties may be taken
one-half of the corresponding stiffness of the cracked elements..
Methods of Analysis in ES EN 1998-
1:2015
o Depending on the structural characteristic of the building one
the following two methods may be used
• Lateral force method of analysis
 For buildings meeting the regularity criteria & T1 ≤ 4TC and ≤ 2 s

• Modal response spectrum analysis

 Applicable to all type of buildings.
o As an alternative a non-linear methods may be used
• Non-linear static (pushover) analysis
• Non-linear time history (dynamic) analysis
o When a non-linear method is used, the seismic input, the
constitutive model used and result shall be properly
substantiated
 Lateral Force Method of Analysis
o Base Shear Fb = Sd (T1) m 
• Fundamental period T1 = Ct ⋅H ¾
or
 For height of the building < 40 m
Where
T1 is the fundamental period of vibration of the building
for lateral motion in the direction considered;
m is the total mass of the building, above the foundation
or above the top of a rigid basement, computed in accordance with
3.2.4(2)
λ is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to:
λ= 0.85 if T1 < 2 TC and the building has more than two storeys, or
λ = 1.0 otherwise.
 Lateral Force Method of Analysis
(Cont’d) s m
z i mi
o Lateral force distribution:Fi Fb  i i
Fi Fb or
Where
s j m j  z j m j
Fi is the horizontal force acting on storey i;
si , sj are the displacements of masses mi , mj in the
fundamental mode shape
z i, z jare the heights of the masses mi , mj above the level of
application of the seismic action (foundation or top of a rigid
basement).
 Lateral Force Method of Analysis
o Torsional effects
(Cont’d)
• Spatial (3D) model, accidental torsional effects
Mai = eai  Fi
Where
Mai is the torsional moment applied at storey i about its vertical
axis;
eai is the accidental eccentricity of storey mass i (eai= 0.05.Li)
Fi is horizontal force acting at storey i
• Planar (2D) model
amplify the action effects in individual load resisting elements with a
factor d
 Combination of seismic actions
o Combination of the effects of seismic action
components
• Horizontal components of the seismic action considered
to act simultaneously
• The maximum value of each action effect due two
horizontal components of the seismic action is
or alternatively
EEdx ''+" 0.30 EEdy and 0.30 EEdx "+" EEdy
• The sign of each component in the above combination
shall be taken as being the most unfavorable of each
action effect.
 Response spectrum Analysis
(Vertical)
o Vertical component of the seismic action
• If a vg > 0.25g (2.5 m/s2
), the vertical component of the
seismic action shall be taken in the cases:
 horizontal (or nearly) members spanning ≥ 20 m ;
 horizontal (or nearly) cantilever members spanning ≥ 5 m ;
 horizontal (or nearly) pre-stressed components;
 For beams supporting columns;
 In base-isolated structures.

• analysis is made on a partial model consisting of

the element under consideration and adjacent
elements.
 Displacement Analysis
o Displacements induced by the design seismic action:
ds = de x qd
where
ds is displacement due to design seismic action
de is displacement from linear analysis based on
design spectrum (shall also include torsional effects)
qd is displacement behavior factor
 Safety Verifications
1. Ultimate limit states
safety against collapse (ULS) is ensured if resistance,
ductility, equilibrium, foundation stability and seismic
joint conditions are met
a. Resistance condition
• Design action effects  design resistance; Ed  Rd
• Second order effects:
Interstorey drift sensitivity coeff.,
if   0.10  no need to consider
0.1 <   0.2  consider 2nd order effects by amplifying
results by a factor 1/ (1-  )
 shall not exceed 0.3
 Safety Verifications (Cont’d)
b. Global and local ductility condition
• check that the structural elements and the structure as a
whole posses adequate ductility
• specific material related requirements defined in section 5
to 9 shall be satisfied
• In multi-story buildings formation of a soft story plastic
mechanism shall be prevented
At all beam column joints ∑𝑀𝑅𝑐 ≥ 1.3 ∑𝑀𝑅𝑏

c. Equilibrium condition
• bldg. should be stable against overturning and sliding
• In special cases the equilibrium may be verified by means
of energy balance or geometrically non-linear methods
 Safety Verifications (Cont’d)
d. Resistance of horizontal diaphragms
• Horizontal diaphragms & bracings shall have sufficient
over-strength in transmitting lateral loads
• The above requirements are satisfied if the diaphragms
can resist 1.3 times forces obtained from analysis
e. Resistance of foundation
• Verification of foundations according to ES EN 7.
• Action effects based on capacity design consideration,
but shall not exceed that of linear behavior with q =1.0.
• If the action effects are determined using q applicable to
DC “L” structures, no capacity design consideration is
needed
e.
Safety Verifications (Cont’d)
Resistance of foundation (cont’d)
• For foundation of walls and columns, the design value
of the action effects EFd are derived as
EFd = EF,G + 𝛾RdΩEF,E
𝛾Rd is over strength factor and Ω is the value Rdi / Edi
Rdi is the design resistance and Edi is design action
effect
f. Seismic joint condition
• To check that there is no collision with adjacent
structures
Distance between potential points of impact < max. ds
When floor elevations of adjacent bldgs. are the same
the max. separation distance referred above can be
reduced by a factor of 0.7
 Safety Verifications
HERE
2. Damage limitation limit states
limitation of damage requirement (SLS) is satisfied if,
under the design seismic action, the interstorey drifts dr
are limited to:
a. For bldgs. having non-structural elements of brittle
materials attached to the structure
b. For bldgs. having non-structural elements of ductile
materials attached to the structure
c. For bldgs. having non-structural elements fixed in a way
not to interfere with structural deformations
where h is the storey height is the reduction factor to
. consider
ES EN 1998-1:2015 - Section
5 Specific rules for concrete
buildings
o Design concepts
• Energy dissipation capacity and ductility classes
• Structural types and behavior factors
o Design for DCL, DCM and DCH
o Provision for anchorage and splices
o Design and detailing of secondary elements
o Concrete foundation elements
o Local effects due to masonry or concrete infills
o Provision for concrete diaphragms
o Precast concrete structures
 Ductility Classes
o Depending on the required hysteretic dissipation
capacity
• DC”L” (low ductility)
• structures designed and dimensioned according to ES EN 2
• recommended only in low seismicity cases
• steel class A, B or C
• DC”M” (medium ductility)
• specific provisions for design and detailing to ensure
inelastic behavior of the structure without brittle failure
• concrete class ≥ C 16/20, steel class B or C
• DC”H” (high ductility)
• special provisions for design and detailing to ensure stable
mechanisms with large dissipation of hysteretic energy
• concrete class ≥ C 20/25 steel class C
 Behavior factors
o The upper limit value of the behavior factor q to account
for energy dissipation capacity, shall be derived as
q= qo kw ≥ 1.5
• Basic value of the behavior factor qo for buildings regular in elevation
STRUCTURAL TYPE DCM DCH
Frame system, dual system, coupled
wall system 3.0αu/α1 4.5αu/α­1

Uncoupled wall system 3.0 4.0αu/α1

Torsionally flexible system 2.0 3.0

Inverted pendulum system 1.5 2.0
• a1 is the value by which the seismic action is multiplied in order to first
reach the flexural resistance in any member
• au is the value by which the seismic action is multiplied in order to form
plastic hinge in a number section leading to instability.
 Relationship between strength &
Ductility
o For seismic collapse prevention, the following approximation hold
• “quality” of seismic behavior = strength x ductility
o To survive an EQ different combination of strength and ductility is
possible
Detailing rules - columns
Detailing rules – columns
(cont’d)
Detailing rules – columns
(cont’d)
Detailing rules – shear
wall
Detailing rules – shear wall
(cont’d)
Detailing rules – shear wall
(cont’d)
ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
PART 1-4: General Action – Wind
Actions
 Motivations
o Structural engineers need to consider the effects of
wind forces on civil structures.

Extensive damage to an office home has been ripped off after

building’s curtain wall and a tornado struck in Alfreton,
interior during the 2000 fort Derbishire (October 2014)
worth tornado A roof of a
 Introduction

o Wind is flowing air.

o Structure in the wind are
subjected to forces which vary
with time and space.
• The level of turbulence of the
wind can be measured by the
turbulence intensity Iv, defined
as the dimensionless coefficient
of variation of the wind velocity ,
i.e. standard deviation divided
by mean value, i.e.
 Introduction
o Flexible structures (e.g. tall
buildings and long span
bridges ) are particularly
sensitive to dynamic
interaction phenomena
• Theory of aero elasticity must
be embedded in the structural
design
 Introduction
• For ordinary buildings,
... With conventional structural systems,
.... With “simple” shape and “small”
extension
.... Designers are allowed to use
equivalent static forces to represent the
actual effects of the turbulent wind
Vb,0
Where to start?
= Fundamental value of the basic
wind velocity
• Is the 10 minute mean wind velocity
... At 10m above ground,
.... Of a terrain with low vegetation,
.... Having an annual probability of
exceedance p=0.02 (i.e. a return period
R=1/p= 50 years)
• This can be calculated as:
 Map values of the basic wind
velocity [m/s] to BS EN 1991-1-
4:2005
 For ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
• We can refer to the national metrology
data,
 Calt = Altitude factor
• It depends on:
Altitude of the site above the mean sea
level , A[m]
Reference height of the structure, zs[m]

{
1+ 0.001 𝐴 , 𝑧 𝑠 ≤ 10 𝑚
𝐶 𝑎𝑙𝑡 =
( )
0.2
10
1+0.001 𝐴 ∙ , 𝑧 𝑠 >10 𝑚
𝑧𝑠

It is acceptable to use the value calt for

zs=10m for all cases, as this is conservative
assumption
Definition of reference height
(ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
a) Vertical structures like b)Parallel oscillator, i.e. c) Point like structures like
buildings horizontal structures like signboards etc
beams etc.
vb= basic wind velocity
• For particular design situations, it is possible (not
recommended) to reduce the fundamental value of the
basic wind velocity, vb,0 taking into account:
Directional factor, Cdir
Seasonal factor, Cseason
cprob= Probability factor
• When required, this
multiplier allows adjusting
the annual risk of being
exceeded:

Where R=1/p is the return

period, while K and n are
two parameters defining the
probabilistic distribution of
extreme winds
Suggested values: K=0.2
and n=0.5
 qb= basic wind
• The dynamicpressure
pressure due to the wind is the kinetic
energy per unit volume of the flowing air

The density of the air is assumed to be ρair= 1.25

kg/m3

This is only a “nominal” or “reference” value of the

wind pressure, as the above equation assumes a
uniform, laminar flow of the air, and does not
account for effects of the turbulence and variation
with height.
 qp= peak wind
• The “basic” pressure
value of wind pressure qcan be
b
transformed into the “peak” value qp(z), varying with
the height z, taking into account:
The roughness of the surrounding terrain;
The site’s proximity to the coast;
How far the site is located within a town (if applicable)
• This is done with either two methods:
“proximity to shore line & site within town”
exposure coefficient );
“short term variation ” turbulence intensity ) and
mean wind velocity ) ;
 The exposure factor Ce(z)
• According to the Eurocode-1, For flat terrain where
cO(z) = 1,0

rou
gh
ne
ss
 Mean wind velocity
• The mean wind velocity Vm(z) at a height z above
the terrain depends on the terrain roughness and
orography and on the basic wind velocity, vb, and
should be determined using:

Where: is the roughness factor

is the orography factor
 The terrain roughness
• accounts for the terrain effect on the mean wind velocity at the
site of the structure due to:
the height above ground level
the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the
wind direction considered

Where:
is the roughness length
terrain factor depending on the roughness length z0
 The terrain factor
• accounts for the terrain effect on the mean wind velocity

Where:

0.05m (terrain category II, refer to table on the next slide)

terrain factor depending on the roughness length z0
is to be taken as 200 m, unless otherwise specified in the
National Annex
 Terrain categories and terrain
parameters
Terrain category z0 zmin
m m
0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea 0.00 1
3
I Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible 0.01 1
vegetation . and without obstacles.
II Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated 0.05 2
obstacles (trees, buildings) with separations of at
least 20 obstacle heights
III Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or 0.3 5
with isolated obstacles with separations of maximum
20 obstacle heights (such as villages, suburban
terrain, permanent forest)
I Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is covered 1.0 10
V with buildings and their average height exceeds 15
 Wind turbulence
• Wind turbulence is a phenomenon of disturbance of
air flow due to roughness and/or “bluff body”:

• EC-1 represents the wind turbulence with the

turbulence intensity.
 Iv= turbulence
intensity
• The turbulence intensity I (z) at height z is defined as the
v
standard deviation of the turbulence divided by the mean
wind velocity.

Where:
KI is the turbulence factor. The value of kI may
be given in the . . . National annex. The
recommended value is kI = 1.0.
Co(z) is the orography factor
z0 is the roughness length
 orography coefficients
• At isolated hills and ridges or cliffs and escarpments
different wind velocities occur dependent on the upstream
slope Φ =H/Lu in the wind direction, where the height H and
the length Lu are defined in figure.
• The orography factor, co(z) =vm/vmf accounts for the
increase of mean wind speed over isolated hills and
escarpments (not undulating and mountainous regions).
 orography coefficients (cont’d)
• The effects of orography should be taken into account
in the following situations:
For sites on upwind slopes of hills and ridges:
where 0.05 < Φ ≤ 0.3 and x ≤ Lu / 2
For sites on downwind slopes of hills and ridges:
where Φ < 0.3 and x < Ld/2
where Φ ≥ 0.3 and x < 1.6 H
For sites on upwind slopes of cliffs and escarpments:
where 0.05 < Φ ≤ 0.3 and x ≤ Lu / 2
For sites on downwind slopes of cliffs and escarpments:
where Φ < 0.3 and x < 1.5 Le
where Φ ≥ 0.3 and x < 5 H
 orography
• It is defined by: coefficients
C=1 o
(cont’d)
for Φ < 0.05
Co= 1+ 2 · s · Φ for 0.05 < Φ
< 0.3
Co= 1+ 0.6 · s for Φ > 0.3
Where:
s is the orographic location factor, to be obtained from Fig.
A.2 or Fig. A.3 scaled to the length of the effective upwind
slope length, Le
Φ is the upwind slope H/Lu in the wind direction (see Fig. A.2
and Fig. A.3)
Le is the effective length of the upwind slope, defined in
Table A.2
Lu is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind
direction
Ld is the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind
 effective length
Table A.2 Values of the effective length
Type of slope (Φ = H/Lu)
Shallow (0.05 < Φ < 0.3) Steep (Φ > 0.3)
Le = Lu Le = H/0.3
orography location factor
for cliffs and escarpments
orography location factor for hills and
ridges
 Wind pressure on surfaces
• The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces, w e
and internal surfaces, wi , should be obtained from:

Where:
& is the peak velocity pressure
& is the reference height for the external and
internal pressure respectively
& is the pressure coefficient for the external &
internal pressure respectively
 NET Wind pressure on surfaces
• The net wind external and internal pressure acting on
the surfaces, wnet is the difference of the pressures.
 Pressure coefficients
• Pressure Coefficient: The shape factor takes
into account the effect of shape of structure on
the pressure distribution.
• The external pressure coefficients Cpe for
buildings and individual parts of building
depend on the size of the loaded area A. They
are given for loaded area A of 1m2 and 10m2 in
the relevant tables for the appropriate building
configuration as cpe,1 and cpe,10, respectively. For
areas between 1m2 and 10m2, values are
obtained by linear interpolation. That is:
 Pressure coefficients (cont’d)
•C pe = Cpe,1 for A≤1m2
•C pe = Cpe,1 -( Cpe,1 – Cpe,10)log10A for 1m2<A<10m2
•C pe = Cpe,10
 Pressure on protruding parts
• For protruding roof corners the pressure on the underside of
the roof overhang is equal to the pressure for the zone of the
vertical wall directly connected to the protruding roof; the
pressure at the top side of the roof overhang is equal to the
pressure of the zone, defined for the roof.
 Wind Load (on building face)
• Values of external pressure coefficients for different cases
are given in Table 7.1 to Table 7.5 of Ec-1, 1991-1-4:2015.
• The reference heights, ze, for windward walls of rectangular
plan buildings (zone D, see Figure 7.5) depend on the aspect
ratio h/b.
 Wind Load (on building face)
• The reference heights, ze, for windward walls of rectangular
plan buildings (zone D, see Figure 7.5) depend on the aspect
ratio h/b.
 Wind Load (on building face)
• It accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure in
different zones of the structure due to:
• Its geometry
• Area and
 Wind Load (on building face)

• EXTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR VERTICAL

WALL.
 Wind Load (on flat roofs)
• Flat roofs are defined as having a slope (α) of –5°< α < 5°
• The roof should be divided into zones as shown in Figure below.
 Wind Load (on flat roofs)
• The area division will be: .
 Wind Load (on flat roofs)
• External pressure coefficients for flat roof
 Wind Load (on mono pitch roofs)
• The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into
zones as shown in Figure below and NS
• The reference height Ze should be taken equal to h.
 Wind Load (on mono pitch roofs)
• The area division will be: .
 Wind Load (on mono pitch roofs)
• External pressure coefficients for mono pitch roof for θ=0° &
180°
 Wind Load (on mono pitch roofs)
• External pressure coefficients for mono pitch roof for θ=90°
 Wind Load (on duo pitch roofs)
• The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into
zones as shown in Figure below and NS
• The reference height Ze should be taken equal to h.
 Wind Load (on duo pitch roofs)
• The area division will be: .
 Wind Load (on duo pitch roofs)
• External pressure coefficients for duo pitch roof for θ=0°
 Wind Load (on duo pitch roofs)
• External pressure coefficients for duo pitch roof for θ=90°
 Wind Load (on Hipped pitch roofs)
• The roof, including protruding parts, should be divided into
zones as shown in Figure below and NS
• The reference height Ze should be taken equal to h.
 Wind Load (on Hipped pitch roofs)
• The area division will be: .
 Wind Load (on Hipped pitch roofs)
• External pressure coefficients for hipped pitch roof for θ=0°
& 90°
 cpi Internal pressure coefficients

• The internal pressure coefficient, cpi, depends on the size

and distribution of the openings in the building envelope.
• For a building with a dominant face:
When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice
the area of the openings in the remaining faces,

When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at

least 3 times the area of the openings in the remaining
faces,
 cpi Internal pressure coefficients
• For a building with out a dominant face:
• Is a function of the ratio of the height and the depth of the
building, h/d, and the opening ratio μ for each wind direction θ,
 cpi Internal pressure coefficients
• Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to
estimate μ for a particular case then cpi should be taken as
the more onerous of:
or