CHM 101

General Chemistry 1

Valence Forces
by

Miss Senami Anko

Department of Chemistry
Lagos State University
 Lewis Dot Symbols
• Valence electrons
determine an element’s
chemistry.

• Lewis dot symbols represent the

valence electrons of an atom as
dots arranged around the
atomic symbol.

• Most useful for main-group

elements 2
Write Lewis dot symbols for the
following:
(a)

(b)
S2−

(c)

K+

3
Write Lewis dot symbols for the
following:
•
(a) •N
••
•
N
• 2−
(b) S
•
•
•
•
•
••
S2−

(c)
K+

K+

4
 Ionic Bonding
• Ionic bond: lectrostatic force
that holds oppositely charge
particles together

• Formed between cations and

• anions
Example
• ••
Na• Cl Na+ Cl
•
•

•
•
•
•
• •
−
+ • +
• •

5
•Lattice energy = the energy
required to completely separate
one mole of a solid ionic compound
into gaseous ions
- + -
+ -
+ - + + - +
-
- + + -

NaCl(s) → Na+(g) + Cl−(g)

ΔHlattice = +788 kJ/mol

Because they are defined as an amount of

energy, lattice energies are always positive. 6
•Coulombic
attraction:
Q = amount of charge
F ∝ Q1 ⋅Q2
d2 d = distance of
separation
Q1 ∙
∙ Q2
d

•Lattice energy (like a coulombic force)

depends on
• Magnitude of charges
• Distance between the charges

7
 Covalent Bonding
• Atoms share electrons to form
covalent bonds.
H• + •H HH or H–H

•
•
• In forming the bond the atoms
achieve a more stable electron
configuration.

8
• Octet: Eight is a “magic” number of
electrons.

•Octet Rule: Atoms will gain,

lose, or share electrons to
acquire eight valence
electrons
• ••
Na• + Na+ Cl
•
•

•
•
•
•
Examples:
Cl•
•
+ •
−
• •
• •
H• + H• • HO
•
•
•
• •H
+ •O•
• •
9
•Lewis
Structures
HH H–H

•
•
H• +
•H
• • •• ••
Cl• Cl• Cl Cl Cl Cl
•
•

•
•

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•• •
•• •• •• – •• ••
•• ••
+ Shared electrons ⇒ Bonds
Non-bonding valence electrons ⇒ Lone
pairs

10
• Multiple Bonds

- The number of shared electron pairs is the

number of bonds.

•• •• ••
Cl Cl Cl
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•• •• ••– Single Bond
Cl
•• ••• •
O•• O=C= Double
•
•

•
•
•

•• • •
C O Bond
•• • •
O
N N N Triple
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

N Bond

11
• Bond strength and bond
length
bond strength single < double < triple

bond length single > double > triple

N–N N=N N≡N

Bond 163 kJ/mol 418 kJ/mol 941

Strength kJ/mol
Bond Length 1.47 Å 1.24 Å 1.10 Å

12
 Electronegativity
and Polarity
• Nonpolar covalent bond =
electrons are shared equally by
two bonded atoms
• Polar covalent bond =
electrons are shared unequally by
two bonded atoms

13
• Electronegativity: ability
of an atom to draw shared
electrons to itself.
- More electronegative elements attract
electrons more strongly.
• relative scale
• related to IE and EA
• unitless
• smallest Cs
electronegativity: 0.7
• largest F 4.0
electronegativity:

14
• Dipole moments and partial charges
- Polar bonds often result in polar molecules.
- A polar molecule possesses a dipole.
- dipole moment (μ) = the quantitative
measure of a
δ+
dipole μ
+Q δ- = ∙–Q
H–F Qr
∙ r

SI unit: HF 1.82
coulomb•meter (C• m) D
HCl 1.08
common unit: debye
1D = 3.34 × D
(D)−30 HBr 0.82
10 C• m
D 15
 Drawing Lewis Structures
1) Draw skeletal structure with the central
atom being the least electronegative
element.

2) Sum the valence electrons. Add 1 electron

for each negative charge and subtract 1
electron for each positive charge.

3) Subtract 2 electrons for each bond in the

skeletal structure.

4) Complete electron octets for atoms bonded

to the
central atom except for hydrogen.

5) Place extra electrons on the central atom.

16
What is the Lewis structure of
NODraw
1) 3 ? skeletal structure with
− O

–
central atom being the least O–N–
electronegati O
2) Sum
ve. valence electrons. Add 1 for each
negative charge and subtract 1 for each
positive charge.
24
NO3− ⇒ (1 × 5) + (3 × 6) + e−
−
1 = 24 valence
Complete electron octets for e −6

: –
:O: −
atoms bonded to the central e18

: :
: :
3) atom
Subtract
except2for
forhydrogen. :O – N –
each bond in the skeletal
e−
5) Place extra electrons on O:
structure. 4)
the central atom. –

: –
6) Add multiple bonds if :O:
24

:
atoms lack an octet. : :
:O – N = −
e17
O:
 Lewis Structures and
Formal Charge
• The electron surplus or deficit, relative to the
free atom, that is assigned to an atom in a
Lewis structure. Total Total Total
Forma valence − non- −
bonding
lCharge electron bonding 1 electron
= s electron s
2

: :
Example: H2O H : O :s
= H
H: orig. valence e− = 1 O: orig. =
valence e−
− non-bonding e− = −0 − non-bonding e− 6
formal charge = 0 formal charge =
=
0
Formal charges are not “real” charges. −418
− 1/2 bonding e− = −1 − 1/2 bonding
Example: Formal charges on the atoms
in ozone

O =6−4− (
1 4
2
O O =0
O = 6 − 2 −)
1
O (6) 2

O = +1
1
=6−6− 2

(2)
= −1

19
∙ Formal charge guidelines
– A Lewis structure with no formal charges
is generally better than one with formal
charges.
– Small formal charges are generally
better than large formal charges.
– Negative formal charges should be
on the more electronegative
H
Example:
atom(s).
H C O o C ?
H r O
Answe H
r: − + H
H C•• •
O•• H C
•
O
H •
3
1
Identify the best structure for the isocyanate
ion below:

–
(a :C = N =
) O:
−2 +1
0

:C ≡ N – O:
(b)
–

(c
−1
:C – N
−1 ≡ O:
+1

) – −3 +
1
+1

21
Identify the best structure for the isocyanate
ion below:

–
(a :C = N =
) O:
−2 +1
0

:C ≡ N – O:
(b)
–

(c
−1
:C – N
−1 ≡ O:
+1

) – −3 +
1
+1

22
 Resonance
•Resonance structures are used when two
or more equally valid Lewis structures can
be written.
Example:
–

:
:
: :
NO2 :O – N =
O:
These two bonds are known to be
identical.
Solutio –:O = N– – O:

:
:

: :
:
:
: :

n: :O – N = O:
Two resonance structures, their average or
the
resonance hybrid, best describes the nitrite
ion.
23
The double-headed arrow indicates
Additional
Examples
Carbonate:
CO32−

Benzene:
C6H6

o
r

24
 Exceptions to the
Octet Rule

•Exceptions to the octet rule fall

into three categories:
– Molecules with an incomplete
octet
– Molecules with an odd
number of electrons
– Molecules with an expanded
octet 25
• Incomplete Octets

Example: BF3 (boron trifluoride)

BF3 ⇒ (1 × 3) + (3 ×
7) = 24 val. e−
:

:
–

–
:
:
:

:
:F –:F:
B – F::F: :F – B = F:
+1
:
:

:
no -1
octet
– Common with Be, B and Al compounds,
but they often dimerize or polymerize.
Cl Cl Cl
Exampl B Be Be Be
e: e Cl Cl Cl
26
• Odd Numbers of Electrons
Example: NO (nitrogen monoxide or
nitric oxide) NO ⇒ (1 × 5) +
−1
0. (1 × 6) = 11 these
Are valence
both
:N = equally
−O: +.1 good?
e
Example:0 NO2 (nitrogen
better :N = dioxide)
O:
NO2 ⇒ (1 × 5) + (2 ×
−1
0 0 6) 0. – = 0. 170val. e0−–
:O = N – :O N = O: :O = N O: +.1– N =
:O 0
O: 0 +1 −1 O:
bes .
t Are these all equally
good?
27
• Expanded Octet
– Elements of the 3rd period and beyond have
d-orbitals that allow more than 8 valence
electrons.
F F

–
SF6 48 valence e−
F
–
:F: (S has 12 valence
= electrons
S )
:
:

XeF2 = F:F – Xe – 22 valence e−

:

:
:

F: (Xe has 10 valence

electron
:F: s)
28