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Calculus Chapter first and second class (Scribd)

The document is a preparatory outline for an undergraduate calculus course, focusing on limits and continuity. It covers fundamental concepts such as functions, properties of limits, and the introduction of various types of functions including polynomial, rational, and trigonometric functions. The chapter also includes theorems related to lines and functions, as well as applications of the Intermediate Value Theorem.

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5 views

Calculus Chapter first and second class (Scribd)

The document is a preparatory outline for an undergraduate calculus course, focusing on limits and continuity. It covers fundamental concepts such as functions, properties of limits, and the introduction of various types of functions including polynomial, rational, and trigonometric functions. The chapter also includes theorems related to lines and functions, as well as applications of the Intermediate Value Theorem.

Uploaded by

elshaday.samuel
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Undergraduate Program

Calculus
Prepared by - Elshaday Samuel
01/30/2025
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

Overview of the chapter

• Revision on Functions
• Introduction to limit concept
• Properties of limits
• Limits and Infinity
• Continuity
• The Intermediate Value Theorem and its applications
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

Revision on Functions
1. REAL NUMBERS - the real numbers, their properties and
relationships are basic to calculus.
– Integers:- 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
– Rational numbers:- are integers that can be written in the form
p/q, where p and q are integers and q 0.
– Irrational numbers:- any real number that is not rational.

Real number line or real line


Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity
– Intervals:- sets of real numbers. They can be grouped into nine
categories.
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity
• Bounded intervals - intervals where the endpoints are known. These
are of four types; (a, b), [a, b], (a, b], and [a, b).
• Unbounded intervals - intervals where either only one side end point
is known or both sides are unknown. These are of five types; (a, ),
(-, a), [a, ), (-, a], and (-, ).
• Some basic laws for inequalities we need to be familiarized with are:
– Trichotomy (threefold division): Either a<b, or a>b, or a=b, and only
one of these holds for any given a and b
– Transitivity: If a<b and b<c, then a<c
– Additivity: If a<b and c<d, then a+c < b+d
– Positive Multipicativity: If a<b and c>0, then ac<bc
– Negative multiplicativity: If a<b and c<0, then ac>bc
LET’S DO SOME
EXAMPLES
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity
– Absolute value:- the absolute value of any real number b is b if
b0 and is -b if b<0. It is denoted by |b|, thus:

– Geometrically, |b| is the distance between 0 and b. More


generally, |a - b| is the distance between the numbers a and b.
– Some of the properties of absolute value we will use are:
• |-a|=|a| and |a-b|=|b-a|
• |ab|=|a||b| and ||=|b
• -|b| ≤ b ≤ |b|
• |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
• |a - b| ≥ ||a| - |b||
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

2. POINTS AND LINES IN THE PLANE


In calculus, we often encounter lines
and curves lying in a given plane.
Using the correspondence between
numbers and the points on a line, we
will identify points in the plane with
pairs of numbers. This will enable us to
describe curves in the plane by means
of equations.
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

– How to find the distance between any two points P(x1, y1) and Q
(x2, y2) in the plane, we use the Pythagorean Theorem?
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

– How to find the equation of a given line on a plane?

Distance Formula Slope of


line formula

Point-Slope Equation Slope-Intercept Equation


Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

• Theorem 1 - Let l1 and l2 be non-vertical lines with slopes m 1


and m2. Then l1 and l2 are parallel if and only if m1 = m2.

• Theorem 2 - Let l1 and l2 be non-vertical lines with slopes m 1


and m2. Then l1 and l2 are perpendicular if and only if m 1 m2 =
-1.
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

3. FUNCTIONS
A function consists of a domain and a rule. The domain is a set
of real numbers. The rule assigns to each number in the domain
one and only one number.

f(x) - read as “f of x” or “the value of f at x”

Range of f - is a collection of values of f(x) that a given function


assigns to the members of its domain
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

– Polynomial function (Polynomial) - any function f whose rule can


be expressed in the form of:

where; are real numbers and n is a non-negative integer


called degree of the polynomial.
Read about Constant, linear, identity functions.
– Rational function - any function f that can be expressed in the
form of fraction.
N.B a polynomial is a rational function whose denominator is 1.
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

– Power Function - constitute a special class of rational functions.


They have the form of:

– Root Function is generally denoted by

• square root function defined by:


• cube root function defined by:
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

• In our next class;


– We will see other types of functions (trigonometric functions,
exponential functions, logarithmic functions), combining
functions, introduction to limit concept and its properties.
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity
– Combining Functions - many functions arise as a combinations of
other functions.
• Let f and g be functions, we define the sum f+g, the difference f-g,
and the product fg to be the functions whose domains consist of all
numbers in the domains of both f and g and whose rules are given
by

• The quotient f/g is the function whose domain consists of all numbers
x in the domains of both f and g for which g(x)0 and whose rule is
given by
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity
– Composition of Functions - when a function is dependent of a
different function.

• In general, if f and g are two functions, then the composition of f and


g is defined as the function whose rule is

and whose domain consists of all numbers x in the domain of f for


which the number f(x) is in the domain of g.
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity
– Trigonometric Functions - are another important functions which
will be used in calculus.

• Measurement of angles - Radian, a circle contains 2 radians which is


360 degrees. (Thus, 1 radian is 180/ degrees)
– If f(x) is the number of degrees in x radians, then f(x) = x.
– If g(x) is the number of radians in x degrees, then g(x) = x.
• Sine and cosine functions:
– sin = and cos =
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

• Properties of trigonometric functions:


– Both sine and cosine functions are periodic; they both have
period 2 meaning they have the same terminal every 2.
– Pythagorean Identity - (Prove this equation by using distance
formula)

• The other four basic trigonometric functions which are defined in


terms of the sine and cosine functions are:
– tan x = for x n + , n any integer
– cot x = for x n, n any integer
– sec x = for x n + , n any integer
– csc x = for x n, n any integer
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

• Trigonometric identities:

– and

• Theorem - let and be two non-vertical lines that are not perpendicular, with
slopes and , respectively. The tangent of the angle from to is given by
Chapter 1 - Limits and Continuity

– Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Reading


assignment
– N.B - You must do examples using them

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