CHAPTER 13

The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

Introduction
The purpose of the chapter is to:
1. Identify and describe the anatomical features
of the spinal cord and spinal nerves
2. Discuss the functions of the spinal cord and
spinal nerves and understand how they help
maintain homeostasis in the body
3. Understand spinal reflex arcs

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Functions of the Spinal Cord
1. Process reflexes
2. Integrate EPSPs and IPSPs
3. Conduct sensory impulses to the brain
and motor impulses to effectors
First layer of protection for the central
nervous system is the hard bony skull and
vertebral column. The skull encases the
brain and the vertebral column surrounds
the spinal cord, providing strong protective
defenses against damaging blows or
bumps. The second protective layer is the
meninges, three membranes that lie
between the bony encasement and the
nervous tissue in both the brain and spinal
cord. Finally, a space between two of the
meningeal membranes contains
cerebrospinal fluid, a buoyant liquid that
suspends the central nervous tissue in a
weightless environment while surrounding
it with a shockabsorbing, hydraulic cushion.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Protection of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is protected by:
 Bone (vertebrae) sturdy
 Vertebrae ligaments
 Connective
tissue
(meninges)
* *
 Fluid
(cerebrospinal
*
fluid)
 Meninges
- composed of three protective connective layers encircle the spinal cord and b
Superficial to deep

1. Dura mater - thick strong layer

composed of
dense irregular connective tissue
2. Arachnoid mater - so called

because of spider’s web

arrangement
of delicate collagen

fibers & some elastic fibers.

3. Pia mater - interlacing bundles of
collagen fibers and some fine elastic
fibers. Many blood vessels that
supply oxygen and nutrients to the
spinal cord. Triangular-shaped
membranous extensions suspend Spinal meninges surround spinal cord -
spinal cord in middle of its dural continuous with cranial meninges,
sheath. Extensions, called which encircle brain
 External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
The spinal cord begins
as an extension of the
medulla oblongata at the
level of the foramen
magnum and terminates
at the level of L2
The superior enlargement, the cervical
enlargement, extends from C4 to T1.
Nerves to and from the upper limbs
arise from the cervical enlargement.
The inferior enlargement, called the
lumbar enlargement, extends T9-T12.
Nerves to and from the lower limbs
arise from the lumbar enlargement.
Inferior to the lumbar enlargement,
spinal cord terminates with conus
medullaris, which ends between L1–
L2 in adults. Arising from the conus
medullaris is the filum terminale, an
extension of the pia mater that extends
inferiorly, fuses with the arachnoid
mater and dura mater, anchors the
spinal cord to the coccyx.
Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves are the paths of communication between the spinal cord
and specific regions of the body
There are 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1–C8), 12 pairs of thoracic
nerves (T1–T12), 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1–L5), 5 pairs of sacral
nerves (S1–S5), and 1 pair of coccygeal nerves (Co1).

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Gray matter and white matter
 Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
• Gray matter of spinal cord and brain, clusters of neuronal cell bodies form functional
groups called nuclei.

• Sensory nuclei receive input from receptors via sensory neurons, and motor nuclei
provide output to effector tissues via motor neurons. Gray matter on each side of spinal
cord is subdivided into horns.

• Posterior gray horns contain axons of incoming sensory neurons and cell bodies and
axons of interneurons. Cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in posterior root
ganglion of spinal nerve.

• Anterior gray horns contain somatic motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell bodies of
somatic motor neurons that provide nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles.

• Lateral gray horns, are present only in thoracic and upper lumbar segments of the spinal
cord. Contain autonomic motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell bodies of autonomic
motor neurons that regulate the activity of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Two bundles of axons, called roots, connect each spinal nerve to a
segment of the cord by even smaller bundles of axons called rootlets
 • Gray matter subdivided into regions - horns.

Posterior gray horn-contain cell

Lateral gray horn-clusters of bodies and axons of
cell bodies of autonomic interneurons as well as axons of
motor neurons that regulate incoming sensory neurons
the activity of cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, and glands.

**
**

**

Extends entire length of spinal cord

Anterior gray horn-contain somatic and filled with cerebrospinal fluid. At
motor nuclei, which are clusters of cell superior end, central canal is
bodies of somatic motor neurons that
provide nerve impulses for contraction continuous with fourth ventricle (a
of skeletal muscles. space that contains cerebrospinal
fluid) in medulla oblongata of brain
 Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
• White matter of the spinal cord - organized into regions
• Anterior and posterior gray horns divide the white matter on each side into three broad
areas called columns: (1) anterior white columns, (2) posterior white columns, and (3)
lateral white columns.
• Each column contains distinct bundles of axons having a common origin or destination
and carrying similar information. Bundles, which may extend long distances up or down
the spinal cord, are called tracts. Tracts are bundles of axons in the CNS, whereas
nerves are bundles of axons in the PNS.
• Sensory (ascending) tracts consist of axons that conduct nerve impulses toward the
brain.
• From the brain are called motor (descending) tracts.
• Sensory and motor tracts of the spinal cord are continuous with sensory and motor
tracts in the brain.

**
**

**
• Sensory nuclei receive input from receptors via sensory neurons, and
motor nuclei provide output to effector tissues via motor neurons.

• Column contain distinct bundles of axons having a common origin or

destination and carrying similar information.

• These bundles, which may extend long distances up or down the

spinal cord, are called tracts.

• Tracts are bundles of axons in the CNS, whereas nerves are

bundles of axons in the PNS.
Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Sensory and Motor Processing
The internal anatomy of the
spinal cord allows sensory
and motor information to be
processed in an organized
way
1.Sensory receptors detect a sensory
stimulus.
2. Sensory neurons convey nerve
impulses, to spinal nerve and to
posterior root. From posterior root, axons
of sensory neurons may proceed along
three possible paths (3 , 4 , 5 ).
3. Axons of sensory neurons may extend
into the white matter of spinal cord and
ascend to brain as part of a sensory tract.
4. Axons of sensory neurons may enter
the posterior gray horn and synapse with
interneurons whose axons extend into the
white matter of spinal cord and ascend to
the brain as part of a sensory tract.
5. Axons of sensory neurons may enter
posterior gray horn and synapse with
interneurons that in turn synapse with
somatic motor neurons that are involved in
spinal reflex pathways.
 Sensory and Motor Processing
6. Motor output from spinal cord to skeletal muscles
involves somatic motor neurons of the anterior gray
horn. Axons from higher brain centers form motor
tracts that descend from the brain into the white matter
of the spinal cord. They synapse with somatic motor
neurons either directly or indirectly by first synapsing
with interneurons that in turn synapse with somatic
motor neurons.
7. Activated, somatic motor neurons convey motor
output in the form of nerve impulses, which sequentially
pass through the anterior gray horn and anterior
root to enter the spinal nerve. From the spinal
nerve, axons of somatic motor neurons extend to
skeletal muscles of the body.
8 Motor output from the spinal cord to cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, and glands involves autonomic
motor neurons of the lateral gray horn. When
activated, autonomic motor neurons convey motor
output in the form of nerve impulses, which sequentially
pass through the lateral gray horn, anterior gray horn,
and anterior root to enter the spinal nerve.
9 From spinal nerve, axons of autonomic motor
neurons from the spinal cord synapse with another
group of autonomic motor neurons located in the PNS.
The axons of this second group of autonomic motor
neurons in turn synapse with cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle, and glands.
Spinal Nerves
Spinal Nerves
 Spinal nerves connect the CNS to sensory receptors, muscles, and
glands and are part of the peripheral nervous system
 31 pairs of spinal nerves
 Anterior and posterior roots attach a spinal nerve to a segment of
the spinal cord
 Posterior root contains sensory axons & anterior root contains motor
axons, a spinal nerve = mixed nerve.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Connective Tissue Covering of Spinal
Nerves
Individual axons within a nerve, whether myelinated or unmyelinated, are wrapped in
endoneurium, the innermost layer = mesh of collagen fibers, fibroblasts, and
macrophages.
Fascicles, each of which is wrapped in perineurium, the middle layer. The
perineurium is a thicker layer of connective tissue. It consists of up to 15 layers of
fibroblasts within a network of collagen fibers. The outermost covering over the entire
nerve is the epineurium.. It consists of fibroblasts and thick collagen fibers.
Extensions of the epineurium fill the spaces between fascicles.
Branches of a Spinal Nerve
Shortly after passing through its intervertebral foramen a
spinal nerve divides into several branches known as rami

Dura mater of the spinal meninges fuses

with the epineurium as the nerve passes
through the intervertebral foramen.
Branches of a Spinal Nerve

The posterior ramus serves the deep muscles and skin of the posterior surface of
the trunk. The anterior ramus serves the muscles and structures of the upper and
lower limbs and the skin of the lateral and anterior surfaces of the trunk. In
addition to posterior and anterior rami, spinal nerves also give off a meningeal
branch. This branch reenters the vertebral cavity through the intervertebral
foramen and supplies the vertebrae, vertebral ligaments, blood vessels of the
spinal cord, and meninges. Other branches of a spinal nerve are the rami
communicantes.
Plexus except for thoracic nerves T2–T12

Axons from the anterior rami of

spinal nerves - they form networks
on both the left and right sides of
the body by joining with various
numbers of axons from anterior
rami of adjacent nerves.

The principal plexuses are the

cervical plexus, brachial plexus,
lumbar plexus, and sacral plexus

The anterior rami of spinal nerves T2–

T12 are called intercostal nerves.
Cervical Plexus

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brachial Plexus

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brachial Plexus

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Lumbar Plexus

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Lumbar Plexus

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sacral Plexus

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sacral Plexus

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Dermatomes
The skin supplied by somatic sensory
neurons carry nerve impulses to spinal cord
and brain.
Segments of the skin supplied by spinal
nerves that carry somatic sensory nerve
impulses to brain.
Knowing which spinal cord segments supply
each dermatome makes it possible to locate
damaged regions of the spinal cord. If skin in
a region is stimulated but the sensation is not
perceived, the nerves supplying that
dermatome are probably damaged.
Therapeutically-Dermatomes overlap,
deliberate production of a region of complete
anesthesia may require that at least three
adjacent spinal nerves be cut or blocked by
an anesthetic drug
Spinal Cord Physiology
The spinal cord has 2 principal functions in
maintaining homeostasis: nerve impulse
propagation and integration of information.

How does information travel in the spinal cord?

 White matter tracts conduct nerve impulses to and
from the brain
 Gray matter receives and integrates incoming and
outgoing information to perform spinal reflexes
Sensory and Motor Tracts middle thoracic and lower limbs of
the body to brain via spinal cord

primarily transmits informati

from the arms

skin to the thalamus

Reflexes and Reflex Arcs
A reflex is a fast, predictable, automatic
response to changes in the environment
 Reflexes help maintain homeostasis
 The spinal cord serves as the integrating center
for spinal reflexes
o Integration takes place in the gray matter of the spinal
cord

Some reflexes are inborn, such as pulling your hand away

from a hot surface before you even feel that it is hot. Other
reflexes are learned or acquired
Reflexes

Interactions Animation:
 Reflexes

You must be connected to the Internet and in Slideshow

Mode to run this animation.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
• When integration takes place in the spinal cord
gray matter, the reflex is a spinal reflex. An
example is the familiar patellar reflex (knee jerk).
• If integration occurs in the brain stem rather than
the spinal cord, the reflex is called a cranial reflex.
An example is the tracking movements of your
eyes as you read this sentence
• somatic reflexes, which involve contraction of
skeletal muscles
• autonomic (visceral) reflexes, which generally are
not consciously perceived. They involve responses
of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.
• The pathway followed by nerve impulses that
produce a reflex is a reflex arc …
General Components of a Reflex Arc

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Reflex Arcs: Vocabulary Terms
 Ipsilateral - belonging to or occurring on the same
side of the body
 Contralateral - relating to the side of the body
opposite to that on which a particular structure or
condition occurs.
 Monosynaptic -
 Polysynaptic -
 Reciprocal innervation - contraction of muscle or set
of muscles is accompanied by the simultaneous
inhibition of an antagonistic muscle or set of
muscles
Four important somatic spinal reflexes…
Stretch Reflex
Controls muscle length by causing muscle
contraction

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Tendon Reflex
Controls muscle tension by causing muscle
relaxation

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Flexor (Withdrawal) Reflex
Moves a limb
to avoid injury
or pain

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Crossed-Extensor Reflex
Maintains
balance

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Clinical Connection
Reflexes are often used for diagnosing
disorders of the nervous system and
locating injured tissue
 If a reflex is absent or abnormal, the damage may
be somewhere along a particular conduction
pathway

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Homeostatic Imbalances
Damage that results from traumatic injuries
depends on
 Degree of spinal cord section
or
 Degree of compression of the segments involved

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.