Bilkent University

Department of Computer Engineering

CS342 Operating Systems

Lecture 1
Introduction
(Chapter 1 of Textbook)
Dr. İbrahim Körpeoğlu
http://www.cs.bilkent.edu.tr/~korpe

CS342 Operating Systems 1 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 References

• The slides here are adapted/modified from the textbook and its slides:
Operating System Concepts, Silberschatz et al., 7th & 8th editions,
Wiley.

REFERENCES
• Operating System Concepts, 7th and 8th editions, Silberschatz et al.
Wiley.
• Modern Operating Systems, Andrew S. Tanenbaum, 3rd edition, 2009.

CS342 Operating Systems 2 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Chapter 1: Introduction
Outline
• What Operating Systems Do
• Computer-System Organization and Architecture
• Operating-System Structure and Operations
• Major Operating Systems Concepts/Components/Functionalities
– Process Management
– Memory Management
– Storage Management
– Protection and Security
• Computing Environments

CS342 Operating Systems 3 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Objectives

• To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems components

• To provide coverage of basic computer system organization

CS342 Operating Systems 4 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 What is an operating system?

• A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer

and the computer hardware

• Operating system goals:

– Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
– Make the computer system convenient to use
– Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

CS342 Operating Systems 5 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Computer System Structure

• Computer system can be divided into four components

– Hardware – provides basic computing resources
• CPU, memory, I/O devices
– Operating system
• Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
– Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
• Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems,
video games
– Users
• People, machines, other computers

CS342 Operating Systems 6 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Four Components of a Computer System

CS342 Operating Systems 7 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Operating System Definition

• OS is a resource allocator
– Manages all resources
– Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource
use
• OS is a control program
– Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use
of the computer
– I/O is accessed via the operating system

CS342 Operating Systems 8 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Operating System Definition (cont.)

• No universally accepted definition

• “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is
good approximation
– But varies wildly
• “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.
Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program

system programs
kernel
application
programs
OS CD

CS342 Operating Systems 9 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Computer Startup

• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

– Typically stored in ROM or EPROM,
– generally known as firmware
– Initializes all aspects of the system
– Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

system/application programs

Kernel

hardware

CS342 Operating Systems 10 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Computer System Organization
CS224 Knowledge

• Computer-system operation
– One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
– Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles

CS342 Operating Systems 11 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Computer system operation

• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
• Each device controller has a local buffer
• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
• I/O is from the
device to local
buffer of controller
• Device controller
informs CPU that it
has finished its
operation by causing
an interrupt

CS342 Operating Systems 12 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Common Functions of Interrupts

• An interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,

through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines
• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
• Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt

• A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a

user request

• An operating system is interrupt driven

CS342 Operating Systems 13 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Interrupt-Driven OS

Applications or System Programs running in CPU

software interrupt / trap
(due to system requests or errors)

Operating System Code

hardware interrupt

Devices disk, keyboard, timer, …

CS342 Operating Systems 14 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Interrupt Handling

• The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing

registers and the program counter
• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
– polling
– vectored interrupt system
• Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for
each type of interrupt

CPU RAM
store
Registers

[Application in CPU] – Interrupt – [Service Routine in CPU]

CS342 Operating Systems 15 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Interrupt Timeline

CS342 Operating Systems 16 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 I/O Structure

• Application programs can request I/O

(read from a device or write to a device) via the
help of OS
Application
– The request is done by calling a System
Call (OS routine)
– System call routine in OS performs the I/O System Call
via the help of device driver routines in OS. Routines
OS
– OS maintains device status table: one entry
per device. The entry keeps the state of the Device Driver
device, etc.
– After issuing a system call, an application Device Controller
may wait for the call to finish (blocking call)
or may continue to do something else (non- Device
blocking call)

CS342 Operating Systems 17 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Direct Memory Access Structure

• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close

to memory speeds
• Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly
to main memory without CPU intervention
• Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt
per byte

CPU
Main Memory

DMA
Device Controller Transfer
Controller

CS342 Operating Systems 18 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 How a Modern Computer Works

CS342 Operating Systems 19 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Storage Structure

• Main memory – only large storage

media that the CPU can access directly Main
CPU
• Secondary storage – extension of main Memory
memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity
• Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass
platters covered with magnetic recording
Disk
material
Controller
– Disk surface is logically divided into
tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
Spinning
– The disk controller determines the Disk
logical interaction between the secondary
device and the computer storage

CS342 Operating Systems 20 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Storage Hierarchy

• Storage systems organized in hierarchy

– Speed
– Cost
– Volatility
• Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage

results from tradeoff between size and speed

caching

small, fast large, slow

CS342 Operating Systems 21 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Storage-Device Hierarchy

CS342 Operating Systems 22 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Caching

• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer

(in hardware, operating system, software)
• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
– If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
– If not, data copied to cache and used there
• The cache is smaller than the storage being cached
– Cache management important design problem
– Cache size and replacement policy size?

cache
replacement policy?

CS342 Operating Systems 23 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Caching

caching

small, fast large, slow

Registers Main Memory

Hardware cache
Main Memory
L1, L2, etc
Main Memory Hard Disk

Hard Disk Tape

CS342 Operating Systems 24 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Computer System Architecture

• Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through

mainframes)
– Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

• Multiprocessor systems growing in use and importance

– Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
– Advantages include
1.Increased throughput
2.Economy of scale (cheaper than using multiple computers)
3.Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
– Two types
1.Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2.Symmetric Multiprocessing

CS342 Operating Systems 25 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

CS342 Operating Systems 26 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 A Dual Core Design

CS342 Operating Systems 27 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Clustered Systems

• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

– Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
– Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
– Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
• Applications must be written to use parallelization

PC
PC
SAN

PC PC Disk Storage

CS342 Operating Systems 28 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Operating Systems Structure

• Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

– Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O Main Memory
devices busy at all times CPU
Job
– Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code
and data) so CPU always has one to
Job
execute I/O
– A subset of total jobs in system is kept device
Job
in memory I/O
– One job selected and run via job device
scheduling I/O
• OS selects which job device
– When it has to wait (for I/O for Job
example), OS switches to another job System

CS342 Operating Systems 29 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Operating Systems Structure

• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU

switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
– Response time should be < 1 second
– Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
– If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
– If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and
out to run
– Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely
in memory

CS342 Operating Systems 30 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed
System

CS342 Operating Systems 31 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Operating System Operations

• Interrupt driven by hardware

• Software error or request creates exception or trap
– Division by zero, for example (exception)
– request for operating system service (trap)
• Other process problems include:
– processes modifying each other or the operating system
• Handle by dual mode
– infinite loop
• Handle infinite loop by use of timer interrupt

CS342 Operating Systems 32 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Operating System Operations

• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system

components
– User mode and kernel mode
– Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user

CS342 Operating Systems 33 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Operating System Operations

Dual mode system operation

Transition from User to Kernel Mode and Vice Versa

CS342 Operating Systems 34 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Preventing a Process Hogging Resources

• Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources

– 1) Set the timer device to interrupt after a while
• Can be a fixed or variable time period
– 2) CPU executes a program (a process)
– 3) Timer device sends an interrupt after that period
– 4) CPU starts executing timer handler: OS gains control
– 5) OS can schedule the same process or other process
– 6) OS sets the timer again before giving the CPU to the scheduled
process

CS342 Operating Systems 35 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Major OS
Concepts/Components/Functions or
Process Management

Processes
CPU Scheduling Memory Management
Files Main
CPU
Memory
Virtual Memory
File System Management

on
Input/Output Control/management

cti
ote
Storage Management Device Drivers

Pr
Disk
Devices Devices Devices

CS342 Operating Systems 36 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Major OS
Concepts/Components/Functions
• Process Management
– Providing process abstraction and managing processes
• Memory management
– Sharing memory among many processes
• Storage (disk) management
– Providing file abstraction, managing files
– Mapping files to disk blocks, disk scheduling
• I/O control and management
– Device derivers, buffering, providing uniform access interface
• Protection and security
– Controlled access to resources, preventing processes interfering
with each other and OS

CS342 Operating Systems 37 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Process Management

• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the

system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.

• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until

completion

• Process needs resources to accomplish its task

– CPU, memory, I/O, files

• Typically system has many processes (some user, some operating

system) running concurrently on one or more CPUs
– Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads

• Upon process termination, resources are released

CS342 Operating Systems 38 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

CS342 Operating Systems 39 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Memory Management

• All data in memory before and after processing

• All instructions in memory in order to execute

• Memory management determines what is in memory and when

• Memory management activities

– Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used
and by whom
– Deciding which processes (or parts of a process) and data to move
into and out of memory
– Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

CS342 Operating Systems 40 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Process Address Space

max

stack

a process Physical
(running Main Memory
application) data RAM
Mapping
(by OS)

a process has an
instructions
address space
(set of logical addresses
0
processes is using)
address space

CS342 Operating Systems 41 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Storage Management

• OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

– Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
– Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

• File-System management
– Files usually organized into directories
– Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
– OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories; Primitives to
manipulate files/dirs; Mapping files onto secondary storage

CS342 Operating Systems 42 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Mass-Storage Management

• Mass Storage: disk (secondary); tapes, CDs, etc. (tertiary)

• Disk store data that does not fit into memory and to be stored for long
time; Proper management is of central importance
• Entire speed of computer operation may depend on the disk
subsystem and its algorithms

• OS activities
– Free-space management; Storage allocation
– Disk scheduling

• Some storage need not be fast

– Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
– Still must be managed

CS342 Operating Systems 43 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

• Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or

implicit

CS342 Operating Systems 44 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Migration of Integer A from Disk to
Register
• Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value,
no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

• Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
CPU CPU CPU
Cache Cache Cache

Main Memory

CS342 Operating Systems 45 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Input/Output Subsystem

• One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from

the user
• I/O subsystem responsible for
– Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance), ..
– General device-driver interface
– Drivers for specific hardware devices

Buffering
Caching….
I/Os sub-system of Kernel
uniform driver interface
Device Derivers

CS342 Operating Systems 46 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Protection and Security

• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to

resources defined by the OS
• Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
– Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft
of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do
what
– User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
– User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control

CS342 Operating Systems 47 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Distributing Computing

• Earlier systems executed tasks on a single system

• Now we have systems interconnected (networked)

together
– Enabling distributed computing, resource
sharing, etc.

• Operating systems have support now for

network
networking multiple systems, distributing file
storage, accessing remote resources, etc.

• Hence the computing environment is no longer a

single system.
– It can consist of many systems used in different
ways

CS342 Operating Systems 48 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Computing Environments

• Traditionally
mainframe computer

a single system with a user

dumb terminals

Computing and OS no computation here

in a single machine

CS342 Operating Systems 49 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Computing Environments

• Client-Server Computing
– Dumb terminals replaced by smart PCs
– Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
• Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services
(i.e. database)
• File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files

CS342 Operating Systems 50 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Peer-To-Peer Computing

• Another model of distributed system

• P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
– Instead all nodes are considered peers
– Each may act as a client, a server or both
– A node must join P2P network
• Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or
• Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for
service via resource discovery/lookup protocol
– Examples include Napster and Gnutella

CS342 Operating Systems 51 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Web Based Computing

• Web has become ubiquitous

• More devices becoming networked to allow web access
• OSs run web servers and web clients
• Web based applications can be developed to run over web servers
and clients.
– Having a browser at the client is enough to run most of the
applications
applications
– No special client software required

Web HTTP
User Web server
browser
pages

CS342 Operating Systems 52 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 Open-Source Operating Systems

• Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than

just binary closed-source
• Counter to the copy protection movement
• Examples include
– GNU/Linux,
– BSD UNIX (FreeBSD, etc.)
– Sun Solaris

CS342 Operating Systems 53 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University

 End of Chapter 1

CS342 Operating Systems 54 İbrahim Körpeoğlu, Bilkent University