UNIR 8

SUPPERPOSITION OF WAVES
 The Principle of Superposition

• The principle of superposition states that:

When two or more waves meet, the resultant
displacement is the vector sum of the
displacements of the individual waves
• This principle describes how waves which meet at a
point in space interact.
• When two waves with the same frequency and
amplitude arrive at a point, they superpose either:
• in phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks
and troughs line up on both waves. The resultant wave has
double the amplitude
• or, in anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The
peaks on one wave line up with the troughs of the other. The
resultant wave has no amplitude
Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive
interference
The principle of superposition applies to all types of waves i.e.
transverse and longitudinal
Worked example
Two overlapping waves of the same types travel in the
same direction. The variation with x and y displacement
of the wave is shown in the figure below
Use the principle of superposition to sketch the resultant
wave.
Answer:
The graph of the superposition of both waves is in black:
To plot the correct amplitude at each point, sum the
amplitude of both graphs at that point
• E.g. A point A, each graph has a value of 0.7. Therefore, the
same point with the resultant superposition is 2 × 0.7 = 1.4
• Exam Tip
The best way to draw the superposition of two waves is
to find where the superimposed wave has its maximum
and minimum amplitudes. It is then a case of joining
them up to form the wave. Where the waves intersect
determines how much constructive or destructive
interference will occur.
 Stationary Waves

• Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by

the superposition of two waves of the same frequency
and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
• This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its
reflection. The superposition produces a wave pattern
where the peaks and troughs do not move
 Stretched strings
• Vibrations caused by stationary waves on a stretched
string produce sound
• This is how stringed instruments, such as guitars or violins,
work
This can be demonstrated by a length of string under
tension fixed at one end and vibrations made by an
oscillator:
• As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing
waves with different numbers of minima (nodes) and
maxima (antinodes) form
Microwaves
 A microwave source is placed in line with a reflecting
plate and a small detector between the two
 The reflector can be moved to and from the source to
vary the stationary wave pattern formed
 By moving the detector, it can pick up the minima
(nodes) and maxima (antinodes) of the stationary wave
pattern
 Air Columns
• The formation of stationary waves inside an air
column can be produced by sound waves.
• This is how musical instruments, such as
clarinets and organs, work
• This can be demonstrated by placing a fine
powder inside the air column and a loudspeaker
at the open end.
• At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly
spaced heaps along the tube, showing where
there is zero disturbance as a result of the nodes
of the stationary wave.
 • Formation of Stationary Waves
• A stationary wave is made up of nodes and antinodes
• Nodes are where there is no vibration
• Antinodes are where the vibrations are at their maximum
amplitude
• The nodes and antinodes do not move along the string.
Nodes are fixed and antinodes only move in the vertical
direction
• Between nodes, all points on the stationary are in phase
• The image below shows the nodes and antinodes on a
snapshot of a stationary wave at a point in time
 Nodes are points of zero amplitude, anti-
nodes are points of maximum amplitude
•L is the length of the string
•1 wavelength λ is only a portion of the length
of the string
 Answer: C
Step 1: Determine the number of wavelengths in
the length of the string
The string has 2 wavelengths
• This rules out A and D
Step 2: Determine points X and Y
• X is a point of 0 displacement - a node
• Y is a point of maximum displacement - an antinode
• Therefore, the correct row is C
 Wavelength of Stationary Waves

Measuring Wavelength
• Stationary waves have different wave patterns depending on the
frequency of the vibration and the situation in which they are
created
Two fixed ends
• When a stationary wave, such as a vibrating string, is fixed at both
ends, the simplest wave pattern is a single loop made up of two
nodes and an antinode
This is called the fundamental mode of vibration or the first
harmonic
• The particular frequencies (i.e. resonant frequencies) of standing
waves possible in the string depend on its length L and its speed v
• As you increase the frequency, the higher harmonics begin to
appear
• The frequencies can be calculated from the string length and wave
equation
• Image 1 shows stationary waves in a column which is closed at one end
• At the closed end, a node forms
• At the open end, an antinode forms
• Therefore, the fundamental mode is made up of a quarter wavelength with
one node and one antinode
• Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node or antinode
• Hence, only odd harmonics form
• Image 2 shows stationary waves in a column which is open at both ends
• An antinode forms at each open end
• Therefore, the fundamental mode is made up of a half wavelength with one
node and two antinodes
• Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node and an antinode
• Hence, odd and even harmonics can form
• In summary, a column length L for a wave with wavelength λ and resonant
frequency f for stationary waves to appear is as follows:
 Diffraction
• What is Diffraction?
• Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they
pass an obstruction/obstacle.
• This obstruction is typically a narrow slit (an aperture)
• The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the
gap compared with the wavelength of the waves
• Diffraction is the most prominent when the width of the slit is
approximately equal to the wavelength
• Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the
vertical lines in the diagram above
• The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is
its amplitude
• This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through a
gap
• Diffraction can also occur when waves curve around an edge:
•Any type
of wave
can be
diffracted
i.e. sound,
light, water
 Worked example
When a wave is travelling through air, which scenario best demonstrates diffraction?
A. UV radiation through a gate post
B. Sound waves passing a steel rod
C. Radio waves passing between human hair
D. X-rays passing through atoms in a crystalline solid
Answer: D
Diffraction is most prominent when the wavelength is close to the aperture size UV
waves have a wavelength between 4 × 10-7 – 1 × 10-8 m so won’t be diffracted by a gate
post
• Sound waves have a wavelength of 1.72 × 10-2 – 17 m so would not be diffracted by
the diffraction grating
• Radio waves have a wavelength of 0.1 – 106 m so would not be diffracted by human
hair
• X-rays have a wavelength of 1 × 10-8 – 4 × 10-13 m which is roughly the gap between
atoms in a crystalline solid
• Therefore, the correct answer is D
 Diffraction Experiments

• As discussed above, the effects of diffraction are most

prominent when the gap size is approximately the same
or smaller than the wavelength of the wave
• As the gap size increases, the effect gradually gets less
pronounced until, in the case that the gap is much
larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer
spread out
• Ripple tanks are used a common experiment to
demonstrate diffraction of water waves
• The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency
in a ripple tank
• The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
• The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength
 Interference &
Coherence
• Interference occurs when waves overlap and their resultant
displacement is the sum of the displacement of each wave
• This result is based on the principle of superposition and the resultant
waves may be smaller or larger than either of the two individual
waves
• Interference of two waves can either be:
• In phase, causing constructive interference. The peaks and troughs line up on
both waves. The resultant wave has double the amplitude
• In anti-phase, causing destructive interference. The peaks on one wave line
up with the troughs of the other. The resultant wave has no amplitude
• At points where the two waves are neither in phase nor in antiphase,
the resultant amplitude is somewhere in between the two extremes
• Waves are coherent if they have the same frequency and constant
phase difference
• Coherence is vital in order to produce an observable interference
pattern
• Laser light is an example of a coherent light source, whereas filament
lamps produce incoherent light waves
 Demonstrating Two Source Interference

• interference of sound, light and microwaves can be demonstrated

with slits or diffraction gratings
Using Water Waves
• Two-source interference in can be demonstrated in water using ripple
tanks
• The diagram below shows diffracted circle shaped water waves from
two point sources
eg. dropping two pebbles near to each other in a pond
• the two waves interfere causing areas of constructive and destructive
interference
• the lines of maximum displacement occur when all the peaks and
troughs line up with those on another wave
Using Sound Waves
• Two source interference for sound waves looks very similar to water
waves
• Sound waves are longitudinal waves so are made up of compressions
and rarefactions
• Constructive interference occurs when two compressions or two
rarefactions line up and the sound appears louder
• Destructive interference occurs when a compression lines up with a
rarefaction and vice versa. The sound is quieter
• This is the technology used in noise-cancelling headphones
Using Microwaves
• Two source interference for microwaves can be detected with a
moveable microwave detector
• Constructive interference: regions where the detector picks up a
maximum amplitude
• Destructive interference: regions where the detector picks up no
signal

Using Light Waves

• For light rays, such as a laser light through two slits, an interference
pattern forms on the screen
• Constructive interference is shown as bright fringes on the screen
• The highest intensity is in the middle
• Destructive interference is shown as the dark fringes on the screen
• These have zero intensity
Two Source Interference Fringes
• For two-source interference fringes to be observed, the sources of the wave must be:
• Coherent (constant phase difference)
• Monochromatic (single wavelength)
• When two waves interfere, the resultant wave depends on the phase
difference between the two waves
• This is proportional to the path difference between the waves which can be written
in terms of the wavelength λ of the wave
• As seen from the diagram, the wave from slit S2 has to travel slightly further than that
from S1 to reach the same point on the screen. The difference in distance is the path
difference
• For constructive interference (or maxima), the difference in
wavelengths will be an integer number of whole wavelengths
• For destructive interference (or minima) it will be an integer number
of whole wavelengths plus a half wavelength
• n is the order of the maxima/minima since there is usually more than one of
these produced by the interference pattern
• An example of the orders of maxima is shown below:
n = 0 is taken from the middle, n = 1 is one either side and so on
only orders 2 and 3 are within the wavelength range of 3.5 cm to 12.5
cm
Therefore 2 and 3 are the orders where the maxima are detected
Double Slit Interference
• Young’s double slit experiment demonstrates how light waves
produced an interference pattern
• The experiment is shown below
• When a monochromatic light source is placed behind a single slit, the light is
diffracted producing two light sources at the double slits A and B
• Since both light sources originate from the same primary source, they
are coherent and will therefore create an observable interference pattern
• Both diffracted light from the double slits create an interference pattern made
up of bright and dark fringes
• The wavelength of the light can be calculated from the interference pattern and
experiment set up
• These are related using the double-slit equation:

• Where:
• λ = wavelength of source (m)
• a = distance between the centres of the slit (m)
• x = fringe width (distance between successive bright fringes) (m)
• D = distance between the slits and the screen (m)
• The interference pattern on a screen will show as ‘fringes’ which are
dark or bright bands
• Constructive interference is shown through bright fringes with
varying intensity (most intense in the middle)
• Destructive interference is shown from dark fringes where no light is
seen
• A monochromatic light source makes these fringes clearer and the
distance between fringes is very small due to the short wavelength of
visible light
 The Diffraction Grating

The Diffraction Grating Equation

• A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of
parallel, identical, close-spaced slits
• When monochromatic light is incident on a grating, a pattern of
narrow bright fringes is produced on a screen
• The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive
interference) are produced can be deduced by the diffraction grating
equation:
nλ
• Where:
• d = spacing between adjacent slits (m)
• θ = angular separation between the order of maxima (degrees)
• n = order of maxima (n = 0, 1, 2, 3...)
• λ = wavelength of light source (m)
• Exam questions sometimes state the lines per m (or per mm, per nm
etc.) on the grating which is represented by the symbol N
• The angular separation between two angles is found by subtracting the
smaller angle from the larger one
• The angular separation between the first and second
maxima n1 and n2 is θ2 – θ1
Orders of Maxima
• The maximum angle to see orders of maxima is when the beam is at right
angles to the diffraction grating
• This means θ = 90o and sin θ = 1
• The highest order of maxima visible is therefore calculated by the
equation:
n=
• Note that since n must be an integer, if the value is a decimal it must be
rounded down
• E.g If n is calculated as 2.7 then n = 2 is the highest-order visible
Worked example
An experiment was set up to investigate light passing through a diffraction
grating with a slit spacing of 1.7 µm. The fringe pattern was observed on a
screen. The wavelength of the light is 550 nm.

Calculate the angle α between the two second-order lines.