“I remember”……..

III Memory and forgetting

1. Key process in memory: encoding, storage and retrieval . Measuring memory:
recall, recognition, relearning

2. Sensory memory(iconic- echoic),

short term memory(rehearsal, chunking),
long term memory( declarative, procedural, episodic, Implicit and explicit
memory, flashbulb memory, tip of tongue)
3. Level of processing theory
Working memory model – Alan Baddley
4. Retrieval cues: encoding specificity principle; context dependent memory and
state dependent memory, serial position effect, reconstructive memory;
eyewitness testimony, flashbulb memory and meta memory.
5. Forgetting: Forgetting Curve
6. Reason for forgetting: decay theory, interference theory, prospective theory,
absents of retrieval cues,
7. Strategies for remembering: rehearsal, elaboration, organization
What is memory? A dusty
storehouse of facts?????
 Memory is an active system, that receives, stores, organizes,
alerts, and recovers information.

 learning and memory represent two sides of the same coin:

learning depends on memory for its ‘permanence’, and memory
would have no ‘content’ without learning. Hence, we could define
memory as the retention of learning and experience
Definition

 In the world of psychology:- it is the ability or power of our mind

to store the past experiences of learning and utilizing them at a
later stage is known a s memory.
 Memory consist in remembering what has been previously
learned.( Woodworth & Marquis 1948)
 ‘ The ability to retain information or a representation of past
experience, based on the mental processes of learning’ – APA
dictionary.
Memory--- a gateway ……

 Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover

information.
 This is not a flawless process
 Sometimes forgot or is remember…and of being not properly
encoded….
 Minor to major signs ….
How memories are formed?
 Encoding
 memories form due to changes in brain neurons…..(nerve cells) and connections between nerve
cells (known as synapses….) .

 Our understanding today is that memories are created through the connections that exist
between these neurons—And which are associated with the learning and retention of new
information, either by strengthening these connections or through the growth of new
connections.
 Awareness
 How long memories can last?
 Painful memories….increased biological arousal l!!
 Availability and accessibility of information
 Memory conceptualized in
terms of types, stages, and
processes Explicit memory
As Implicit memory
types

Sensory memory
Short term memory
As
Long term memory
stages
Encoding
As
"Encoding, Storage, and
Retrieval Stages of Memory".
Elaborate
encoding

Encoding Storage
Sensory Long term
Short term
memory memory
memory
Retrieval
Encoding and Storage: How
Our Perceptions Become
Memories

Encoding is the process by which we place the things that we
experience into memory. Unless information is encoded, it cannot
be remembered.
 Encoding is transforming internal thoughts and external events into short term
and long-term memory. This is the process in which the information is
processed and categorized for storage and retrieval. It is a crucial first step in
creating a new memory. Memory encoding converts the perceived item or
event into a construct that can be stored and recalled later from the brain.
Encoding process….
 Hermann Ebbinghaus
 Learning and forgetting- within self- learning curve
 Association of new things to prior knowledge-recall
 Ivan Pavlo- semantic relationship- unrelated things
 Frederic Bartlett – mental schemas
 Donald Hebb- neural connections
 George Miller- seven, plus or minus two

 Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch – central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, and
phonological loop as a method of processing and encoding.
 Encoding …
 Types of encoding :-
 Visual encoding : visual image to understand it as an
object- visual information is converted to the memory stored in
the brain- through visuospatial sketchpad – connected to
central executive: the key area of working memory. Iconic
memory
 Acoustic encoding : auditory information - It includes processing
of sounds, words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval. The
phonological loop, which is a component of acoustic encoding, involves two
different processes. First, acoustic information comes into the brain for one
to two seconds. Second, rehearsal is required to convert it into long-term
memory..
 Types of encoding ….
 Semantic encoding : Encoding of sensory input that has a
particular meaning or context is known as semantic encoding. This may
include remembering concepts, ideas, definitions, and dates, etc.
Semantic encoding is easier to recall than the non-semantic or shallow
encoding of things. Attaching emotions to information is a good idea to
make semantic encoding much more memorable.
 Elaborative encoding : process new information in ways
that make it more relevant or meaningful. Elaborative encoding
of something has been shown to greatly enhance long-term memory
 Tactile encoding : Tactile encoding is encoding and processing
of feeling of touching something. Neurons in the somatosensory
cortex play an important role in this process. Tactile encoding may
include remembering the taste of a fruit, feeling of cuddling with
your cat, or feeling of your first kiss. Processing of Odors can also
be a part of the tactile encoding.
 Organizational encoding : Classifying information to a sequence of
terms is what we know as organizational encoding. It includes
categorization, listing, and grouping of information by noticing
relationships among different items. Existing memories are
encoded differently in organizational encoding.
Principles of encoding: selective- attend some
events and ignore others : promiscuous-encoding the events of your life,
recoding- taking the information from one form as it is given to us and then
converting in a way that makes sense to us.

Problems that affect encoding

 Sleep deprivation (lack of slow wave sleep- memory consolidation)
 Depression (STM)
 Alzheimer's disease (dysfunction of medial temporal lobe)
 Excessive multitasking
 Vitamin B-12 deficiency (RBC)
 Drug abuse
Storage
 The retention of encoded material over time
 Storage is achieved through two types of rehearsal :
 Maintenance rehearsal : repetition to aid storage
 Elaborative rehearsal:- aids storage by fitting new information in
to an organizational system (giving meaning). More secure and
stable than maintenance rehearsal.
 Once the information is encoded, it needs to be stored. This
stage involves maintaining the encoded information over time.
Storage can be short-term or long-term, depending on the
importance and frequency of the information.
 Retrieval
 Retrieval is locating stored information and returning it to conscious
thought.
 Context-dependent : retrieved more readily when the person is in a
similar situation or environment as when the information was learned.
 State –dependent: retrieved more readily when the person is in a
similar emotional state as when the information was learned.
 mood congruent effect.
Retrieval is the process of recalling stored information when it is
needed. Retrieval can be influenced by various factors, including the
context in which the information was encoded and the cues available
at the time of recall.
The temporary failure to retrieve information from memory is called
TIP-OF –TONGUE-PHENOMENON
 Meta memory-Our knowledge and
awareness of our own memory
processesrefers to the processes and structures whereby
 Metamemory
people are able to examine the content of their memories,
either prospectively or retrospectively, and make judgments
about them. It is thus, people’s knowledge of monitoring and
control of their own learning and memory processes

Self-regulation/metacognitive control – using the output of
monitoring to inform decisions we make about learning and
remembering
 Types of metamemory judgments
 Ease-of-learning judgments – estimates made before studying an item of
how likely it will be remembered and how difficult it will be to learn
 Judgments of learning – determinations made during study of whether
the item has been learned already
 Feeling-of-knowing judgments – estimations of the likelihood that an
unrecalled item will be recognized
 Tip-of-the-tongue states – feelings that an unrecalled item will be recalled
soon-
 TOT states have two components ◦The feeling/subjective state can be
strong
◦ The feeling has a reference (the item in our memory)
 Retrospective confidence judgments – estimations that a retrieved
answer is indeed correct
Theories of meta memory

 Direct access theories – strength of stored information

 Indirect/ inferential theories- by using cues, tricks, heuristics
 Process of memory …
E S R
n t e
c o t
o r r
d i
a
i e
n g v
g e a
l
Refers to INPUT to the
memory system. Closely Refers to the process by
Refers to the process by
related to SELECTIVE which stored information
which sensory information is
ATTENTION. Relates to is recovered. Relates to
retained in memory. Relates
the questions: HOW IS the questions: ARE THERE
to the questions: WHERE ARE
SENSORY INFORMATION DIFFERENT KINDS OF
OUR MEMORIES ‘KEPT’? and
PROCESSED IN A WAY REMEMBERING? WHAT DO
IS THERE MORE THAN ONE
THAT ALLOWS IT TO BE WE REMEMBER? and WHY
KIND OF MEMORY?
STORED? or HOW ARE DO WE FORGET?
THINGS REMEMBERED?
 How do measure memory ?
 When you are not able to remember someone’s name but you know that you have
seen his/her face before, this is the process of recognition. In this process you are
checking the stimulus (face) with your memory content to find a match. In the same
manner when one tries to remember a name without a face in front, it is called
recall. Recall is a process of using a general stimulus and finding the information
about it from memory. When you are given a question in an exam you use the
process of recall. When you answer multiple choice items, you are asked to match
the information with the provided pieces of information. You have to identify and
match it with the information which is already stored in your memory. Recognition is
easier than recall. Relearning is the method of learning the material another time.
It usually takes less time than original learning.
 Brown1976 states 2 process of retrieval-Recall and Recognition
 Recall
 Is passive but direct method of assessing retention
 Reproduction of learnt materials after a time span is recall.
 Repetition of the learned material; verbatim (word for word) recitation.
 For ex: one may recall a poem by reciting it even if he does not remember
the circumstances under which he had learned.
 Recall is often categorized into :
 Free recall- recall freely without specific order
 Serial recall- recall learned material in a specific order
Primacy effect- tendency to remember first set of information.
Recency effect –tendency to remember last series of information
Recognition

 It is an active process where identification of elements takes

place.
 Identification of learnt material object from a combination of
learned and unlearned material.
 The correct identification will provide the raw retention score:
 R-W/K-1 x 100/n
 R= total no of items correctly recognized
 W= total no of items incorrectly recognized
 K= total no of alternatives given for recognition (old + new)
 N= no of items originally presented for learning
 4 out of 10 items with 10 alternatives = ?
Relearning (saving method)

 In this method, a list of materials is presented to the subject up

to perfect learning , and after a time gap, he/she is presented
with the same list to relearn. The experimenter records the
number of trials and time taken by the subject in relearning
condition.
 OLT-RLT/OCTx100
 OLT= original learning trials
 RLT= relearning trials
 8 trials (OLT), 6 (RLT), the percentage of saving/ relearning is ?
Reconstruction

 Reproduction of the learned materials

 Rearranging the parts of an original task, presented randomly.
 The stimuli are presented in a certain arrangement, then this arrangement
is broken up and the stimuli are handed over to the subject with instruction
to reconstruct the original order.
3.2- stages of memory

 Sensory memory(iconic- echoic),

 short term memory(rehearsal, chunking),
 long term memory( declarative, procedural, episodic,
Implicit and explicit memory, flashbulb memory, tip of
tongue)
Sensory memory

 ‘Fleeting memory’ – related to process of perception

 The information from the environment first reaches
sensory memory and if required attention is given to
the information, it moves to other memory systems. It
can store information only for 200-500 milliseconds.
 “Sensory buffer store”/ sensory storage
Types of sensory memory
Types of SM
 Iconic memory- visual sensory memory- typically lasts for about one-
quarter to one half of a second ( George Sperling )
 Echoic memory – auditory memory- last up to three to four second
(remember words at the beginning of a long sentence, and most recent
statement)
Eidetic imagery ( photographic memory): report details of an
image over a long period of time. (disorder-autism)
 Haptic memory- tactile memory- touch- lasts approximately two seconds.

 How SM works?
 Senses enormous amount of information through sense organs-not able to
remember each one- SM creates a quick ‘snapshot’- focused attention.
U G J
X

P J
M B
Sperling’s SM

 Psychologist George Sperling 1960 s

 List of words for about 50 milliseconds (1/20 f a second)- recall:
only about one-quarter f the letters.
 In the second set – the same test was administered with a
change that the participants were singled to report the letters
from either the first, second, or third row- ‘short enough’ – the
length of iconic memory- 250 milliseconds (one by fourth of a
second)
 Characteristics of SM
 Limited in duration and capacity . It lasts very briefly and is almost
immediately replaced by new information.
 Researchers have found that attention to the stimulus has only a weak
impact on sensory memory.
 The type of memory stored is specific to the sensory modality; in other
words, echoic memory stores auditory information, iconic memory
stores only visual information, and haptic memory stores only tactile
information.
 Information stored in sensory memory includes a great deal of detail.
Short term memory (STM)- primary
memory
 Short
term memory (STM) is the place where small
amounts of information can be temporarily kept for
more than a few seconds but usually for less than one
minute.

 Informationin short-term memory is not stored

permanently but rather becomes available for us to
process, and the processes that we use to make
sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in
STM are known as working memory. Hence memory
procedures or operations
How STM works ??

Is 10 × 2 − 5 = 15? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember

“S”

Is 12 ÷ 6 − 2 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “R”

Is 10 × 2 = 5? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “P”

Is 8 ÷ 2 − 1 = 1? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “T”

Is 6 × 2 − 1 = 8? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “U”

Is 2 × 3 − 3 = 0? (Answer YES OR NO) Then remember “Q”

List the letters in each trial in the
correct order….
 STM- attention and processing

Central executivethe part of working memory that
directs attention and processing. The central
executive will make use of whatever strategies
seem to be best for the given task. For instance, the
central executive will direct the rehearsal process,
and at the same time direct the visual cortex to
form an image of the list of letters in memory -
Working memory - Alan Baddley 2003

 Working memory has limited capacity part of the human memory system
that combines the temporary storage and manipulation of information in
the service of cognition.
 Working memory differs from short-term memory (STM) in that it assumes
both the storage and manipulation of information, and in the emphasis on
its functional role in complex cognition.
 When S.T.M get organized from there the work of working memory starts
where various thinking process starts
 Badley's model of working memory

 Or STM – memory that one is currently processing .

 This memory lasts for less than a minute and is limited in capacity. In an attempt to
better understand working memory, Alan Baddeley developed the working memory
approach.
 According to this approach, working memory is a system with several different parts
that control the information being processed. This led to the development of Allan
Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory. This model assumes that each component has
a limited capacity and is relatively, not entirely, independent of the others.
 Baddeley’s original model contained three components , phonological loop, the visuo-
spatial sketchpad, and the central executive. However, the current model also
contains the episodic buffer.
 The phonological loop processes sounds and is responsible for
speech-based information. This includes sounds that are
processed in one’s mind.
 For example, the phonological loop is used in learning new
vocabulary, problem-solving, math problems, and
remembering instructions. In all these tasks, sounds are being
processed through the phonological loop.
 The two components of the phonological loop are the
phonological store and the articulatory control process.
 The phonological store holds the information for 1.5-2
seconds. The articulatory control process refreshes the
information in the phonological store. It also converts written
material into phonological code so that it can be registered by
the phonological store
 The visuo-spatial sketchpad is responsible for processing visual and
spatial information. It can be fed either directly, through perception, or
indirectly, through a visual image.
 The visuo-spatial sketchpad allows people to store images of objects
and their locations. The sketchpad is also used in navigation. When a
person goes from one location to another, it is the visuo-spatial
sketchpad that is stimulated. It is also activated in various activities
such as puzzles, mazes, and games.
 There are two components to the sketchpad. The visual cache stores
information pertaining to color and visual form. The inner scribe
rehearses information from the visual cache and transfers information
from the visual cache to the central executive. The inner scribe also
deals with spatial and movement information, and is involved in the
planning and execution of body movements.
 The central executive incorporates information from the
phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, the episodic buffer,
and from long-term memory. The complexity of the central
executive is not yet fully known.
 Some of the major functions involved with the central executive are
the switching of retrieval plans, time sharing in multitasking,
selective attention, suppressing irrelevant information,
daydreaming, and temporary activation of long-term memory.
 These are not all of the function of the central executive, and it is
important to realize that it is not fully clear what the central
executive is capable of.
 The episodic buffer was not a part of Badley's original model.
It was added to the model 25 years later.
 It is seen as a place to temporarily integrate information
gathered from the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad,
and long-term memory.
 The episodic buffer is controlled by the central executive, yet it
transfers information into and out of the long-term store. The
addition of the episodic buffer allowed a clearer connection to
be made between working memory and long-term memory.

STM
Is limited in both length and the amount of information it can hold.
 Peterson and Peterson (1959)found that when people were asked to
remember a list of three letter strings and then were immediately
asked to perform a distracting task (counting backward by threes),
the material was quickly forgotten , such that by 18 seconds it was
virtually gone.
 Use working memory to rehearse the material.
 Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information
mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory. We
engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep a something that we want
to remember (e.g., a person’s name, e-mail address, or phone
number) in mind long enough to write it down, use it, or potentially
transfer it to long-term memory.
Limited capacity to STM- Try reading each of the following rows
of numbers, one row at a time, at a rate of about one number each second. Then when you have finished
each row, close your eyes and write down as many of the numbers as you can remember.

019
3586
10295
861059
1029384
75674834
657874104
6550423897
STM
 Digit span
 Adult-5 and 9, average about 7
 The cognitive psychologist George Miller (1956) [11]
referred to “seven plus or minus two” pieces of
information as the “magic number” in short-term
memory. But if we can only hold a maximum of about
nine digits in short-term memory, then how can we
remember larger amounts of information than this? For
instance, how can we ever remember a 10-digit phone
number long enough to dial it?
Chunking

 Chunking is the process of organizing information into smaller

groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the number of items that
can be held in STM.

 XOFCBANNCVTM
MTVC NNAB CFOX
 Chunking is involved whenever we reduce a larger amount of
information to a smaller amount. This (a) increases the
capacity of STM, and (b) represents a form of encoding
information, by imposing a meaning on otherwise meaningless
material.
 arranging letters into words, words into phrases, phrases into
sentences
 converting 1066 (four bits of information) into a date (one
chunk), so a string of 28 numbers could be reduced to seven
dates
 using a rule to organize information: the series
149162536496481100121 (21 bits) is generated by the rule by
which 11 1, 22 4, 33 9, and so on. The rule represents a
single chunk, and that’s all that has to be remembered
Forgetting in STM ?

 1.Decay Mechanism
 2.Interference mechanism;

 Proactive interference
 Retroactive interference

 3.Displacement mechanism
Long Term Memory – LTM-
secondary memory (where the
past lives)
 Memory storage that can hold information for days,
months, and years..
 After associating that new knowledge with existing
knowledge or by repeating and rehearsing the
knowledge, such knowledge will be converted into
long-term memory.
 capacity and duration : Unlimited capacity and
vast storehouse of all the information, skills,
abilities, and so on, which aren’t being currently
used, but which are potentially retrievable.
 LTM

 According to Bower (1975), some of the kinds of information contained in LTM include:
 ● a spatial model of the world around us
 ● knowledge of the physical world, physical laws and properties of objects
 ● beliefs about people, ourselves, social norms, values and goals
 ● motor skills, problem-solving skills and plans for achieving various things
 ● perceptual skills in understanding language, interpreting music, and so on
 Information can be held for between a few minutes and several years (and may in fact
span the individual’s entire lifetime).
 LTM
 Coding : Coding With verbal material, coding in LTM appears to be mainly
semantic.
 Experiment by Baddeley (1966)
 Acoustically similar (.g. ‘caught’, ‘short’, ‘taut’, ‘nought’)
 semantically similar (e.g. ‘huge’, ‘great’, ‘big’, ‘wide’)
 acoustically dissimilar (e.g. ‘foul’, ‘old’, ‘deep’), or
 semantically dissimilar (e.g. ‘pen’, ‘day’, ‘ring’).
 When STM was assessed acoustic words and found that acoustic memory occurs
in STM , and semantic words were not dominant in STM.
 Subsequent study found (LTM) that semantic word has recalled than the acoustic
words
Read through …..

bed dream blanket doze

pillow nap snore mattress
alarm clock rest slumber nod
sheet bunk cot cradle groggy
How memories are stored ??
 Permanence
 As new long-term memories are stored, older memories are often
updated, changed, lost, or revised
 classic study Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) showed
people a filmed automobile accident:- Afterward, some participants
were asked to estimate how fast the cars were going when they
“smashed” into each other. For others the words “bumped,”
“contacted,” or “hit” replaced “smashed.” One week later, each
person was asked, “Did you see any broken glass?” Those asked
earlier about the cars that “smashed” into each other were more
likely to say yes. (No broken glass was shown in the film.) The new
information (“smashed”) was included in memories and altered
them.
Tell previous words- Old or new
words ?
sofa sleep lamp kitchen
 LTM
 Updating memories is called constructive processing. Gaps in memory, which are
common, may be filled in by logic, guessing, or new information.
 False memory
 Does new information ‘overwrite’ existing memory?
 Forensic psychologist use the technique ‘telling wrong from right’. ( reduce the problem
in eye witness memory.
 Does hypnosis? ---to an extent.
 Cognitive interview- recreating the scene.
 To summarize, forming and using memories is an active, creative, highly personal
process. Our memories are colored by emotions, judgments, and quirks of personality.
And all these depends on what we pay attention to, what we regarded as meaningful or
important, and what we feel strongly about.
 Organizing memories- information in LTM may be arranged according to rules, images,
categories, symbols, similarity, formal meaning, or personal meaning- Memory
structure refers to the pattern of associations among items of information
LTM

 The way the memory was encoded in the first place can
play a significant role. If you were very aware and alert when you
had the experience, then the memory will probably be a lot more
vivid.
 The number of times you access a memory can also play a
role in the strength and duration of that memory. Not
surprisingly, memories that you recall often tend to stick around
and become much stronger.
LTM
Types of LTM
 Explicit / Declarative memory/ Fact memory : requires conscious
recall; it consists of information that is consciously stored or
retrieved. Explicit memory can be further subdivided into semantic
memory (facts taken out of context, such as “Paris is the capital of
France”) and episodic memory (personal experiences, such as “When
I was in Paris, I saw the Mona Lisa“).

 HIPPOCAMPUS,ENTORHINAL CORTEX AND PERIRHINALCORTEX

is the areas essential for learning new information to consolidate that
information from STM to LTM.
 Tulving has proposed two types of
declarative memory
 Episodic memory It refer to any events that can be reported from a
persons life. This covers information such as any times, places involved –
for example, when you went to the zoo with a friend last week. It is a
type of ‘declarative’ memory, i.e. it can be explicitly inspected and
recalled consciously.
 Episodic memory can be split further into autobiographical episodic
memory (memories of specific episodes of one’s life) and experimental
episodic memory (where learning a fact [a semantic memory] has been
associated with memory of the specific life episode when it was learned.
 Hippocampus only stores information forshort tme after which memory is
consolidated to neocortex.
 Autobiographical memory refers to memory of personal events. This type of memory
is highly valued by patients and caregivers, as it contains knowledge about the self
and personal identity and personal experiences.
  Emotions, the "facts" that describe you and make you unique, the facts of your life,
and the experiences you have had, are all contained in separate domains, and
processed differently.
  Your memory for emotions can help you modify your moods.
  Autobiographical memory contains the information you have about yourself. It
includes several domains: self-description (the source of a large part of your sense of
identity), containing information such as: o whether or not you like ice-cream o what
your favorite color is o what you think about a political party
  emotional memory, which not only contains our memories of emotional
experiences, but also helps us control our moods. By dwelling on appropriate
memories, we can sustain a mood. By recalling memories that involve a contrasting
emotion, we can change a mood.
  event memory
Autobiographical memory
Autobiographical memory
 Your memory for events This is the largest component of autobiographical
memory, containing three separate but related domains:
  memory for specific events that have happened to you
  memory for general events, which tells you the broad sequence of actions
in events such as going to a restaurant or going to the dentist
  a potted summary of your life, which enables you to answer such questions
as, “Where did you go to school?”, “Where were you working last year?”
 These may be thought of as being connected hierarchically:

 Life history General event

specific event
 Flashbulb memories are more detailed autobiographical memory
that are stored permanently in LTM when they are first learned, often
because they were of emotional or historical importance in that
person’s life (e.g. a birth or a death).It is exceptionally vivid
(emotionally arousing).
 It is highly resistant to forget ,possibly due to the strong emotion that
are typically associated with them .however number of studies have
demonstrated that it is not too correct ,despite apparently being
experienced with vividness and confidence.
SEMANTC MEMORY

 A type of declarative memory

 However ,the conscious recall here is of fact that have meaning as oppose to
the recall of past life events associated with episodic memory. For instance,
recalling that you listen to music using your ears does not require knowing
when or where you first learned the fact.
 A memory system that stores abstract knowledge about the world , meaning
of words, properties of object, typical event of everyday life.
 Temporal lobe may be responsible
 Types of LTM
 Procedural/Implicit Memory/ Skill memory : propounded by Schachter(19870. These
memories are not based on consciously storing and retrieving information, but on
implicit learning. Often this type of memory is employed in learning new motor skills. An
example of implicit learning is learning to ride a bike: you do not need to consciously
remember how to ride a bike, you simply do. This is because of implicit memory. One of
related incident related to it is PRIMING-having seen or heard a stimulus once may
facilitate our recognizing it too later occasion even we are not aware that it is
happening.
 Conditioning : As already discussed in the previous unit, that this form of memory is
responsible for learning an association between two stimuli.
 Motor/Procedural memory : The process of learning a motor skill is slow but once it is
well learned it becomes automatic in nature. That is, it does not need any further
attention or conscious effort. Such as the motor process involved in walking does not
need any conscious effort.
 It is registered in cerebellum
MODELS OF MEMORY

 Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi –store model

 STM can be analyzed in terms of

 Capacity – how much information can be stored (chunking)
Duration – how long the information can be held in
storage(maintenance rehearsal) . Brown Peterson technique (STM
duration on delay of interval)
Coding – how sensory input is represented by the memory system.-
how letters or sound mistakes leads to errors –
probe word (a homonym ; bawl for ball, synonym; talk for speak, identical.
Atkinson and Shiffrin model
Models -----
 Levels of processing model
 Craik and Tulving (1975) have proposed three LOP:
 a) Physical/Structural Processing: Encoding of information based on its
physical attributes.
 b) Phonological Processing: Encoding based on how it sounds. Such as, ‘Hat’
rhymes with ‘Cat’
 c) Semantic Processing: Encoding done based on its meaning and/or
concept.
 Studies on this model have suggested that deeper the level of processing,
the higher will be its probability to be retrieved successfully.
Levels of processing ….
 Levels of processing model
According to this model, memory is influenced
by the nature and extent of mental processes
applied during encoding, rather than the
duration or repetition of information.
The Levels of Processing Model proposes three
distinct levels of processing: shallow,
intermediate, and deep.
 Structural Level of Processing
 The concept of the Structural Level of Processing is not explicitly part of
the Levels of Processing Model.
 However, it can be considered as a shallow level of processing within
the framework of the model.
 The Structural Level of Processing involves the basic sensory or
physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their visual appearance,
sound, or other perceptual features. It refers to the superficial
processing of information without engaging in deeper analysis or
meaningful interpretation.
 This level of processing is generally associated with weaker memory
traces and limited retention compared to deeper levels of processing
that focus on semantic or meaningful aspects of the information.
 Phonemic Level of Processing

 In the Latin language, sounds are referred to as phonemes, indicating a connection

between phonemic processing and acquiring information through auditory stimuli.
 This level of processing occurs when we direct our attention to the sounds produced by
an item, whether it be in our environment or from something we are reading.
 For instance, when we listen to music or pronounce words while reading, we engage in
phonemic processing by encoding the surrounding sounds. Rhythmic poems are easier
to remember due to the strength of phonemic processing, as rhymes contribute to this
auditory processing.
 Focusing on the sounds of words allows us to predict or narrow down the usage of
upcoming words, particularly in the context of reading poems. Both vision and hearing
play a significant role in enhancing the processing of information, resulting in stronger
memory formation that is more accessible and long-lasting.
 Despite this, phonemic processing is still considered a form of shallow processing when
compared to deeper levels of processing.
 Semantic Level of Processing
 The Levels of Processing Model suggests that semantics, or
the meaning-making approach, represents the deepest
level of processing information.
 Deep processing involves active engagement, connecting
new information with prior knowledge, and drawing
conclusions or establishing solid relationships.
 This meaningful analysis leads to strong memory imprints
and improved recall. For instance, when reading an
academic paper, connecting and relating words enhances
understanding and memory.
 Deep-level processing occurs when various techniques are
consciously or unconsciously employed to create
 About Craik and Lockhart’s
Experiment
 Are words better remembered when we focus on their meaning rather
than their physical or auditory properties?
 In an experiment, psychologists presented participants with a set of
60 words and asked questions related to structural, phonemic, or
semantic processing.
 For example, participants were asked whether the word was in capital
letters or if it made sense in a sentence.
 Later, the participants were given a list of 180 words and asked to
identify if each word was from the initial set of 60. Which words did
participants remember better? As you may have guessed, they were
more likely to remember words that involved semantic processing
questions.
 On the other hand, words associated with structural processing
questions were the least likely to be remembered.
 Criticisms of the Levels of
• Processing
Lack Theory
of Specificity: The Levels of Processing Theory lacks specificity in defining the exact
processes or mechanisms responsible for the observed depth of processing effects.
• Subjectivity of Depth: The determination of depth of processing is subjective, as
different individuals may interpret and engage with information at varying levels.
• Overemphasis on Depth: The theory heavily emphasizes the depth of processing while
downplaying the role of other factors, such as attention, context, and emotional
significance, which can also influence memory.
• Lack of Predictive Power: The theory has limited predictive power, as it does not
consistently explain or predict specific memory outcomes across different contexts or
individuals.
• Limited External Validity: The theory's findings primarily rely on laboratory experiments
with artificial stimuli, raising concerns about the generalizability of its conclusions to
real-life memory situations.
• Incomplete Account of Memory: The Levels of Processing Theory does not provide a
comprehensive explanation of all aspects of memory processes, such as storage,
retrieval, or forgetting, limiting its overall explanatory scope.