Composition of the earth’s

• The
atmosphere
atmosphere of earth is composed of nitrogen (78%),
oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%), carbon dioxide (0.04%) and trace
gases. A variable amount of water vapour is also present in
the atmosphere (approx. 1% at sea level) and it decreases
with altitude. Carbon dioxide gas is largely responsible for the
greenhouse effect.
• By volume, the dry air in Earth's atmosphere is about 78.08
percent nitrogen, 20.95 percent oxygen, and 0.93 percent
argon. A brew of trace gases accounts for the other
approximately 0.04 percent, including the greenhouse gases
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.
 Composition of the earth’s atmosphere
• The Earth's atmosphere is mostly composed of a mixture of gases with very
tiny quantities of aerosols, which are solid or liquid particles suspended in the
air. You should understand that most of the gases in the atmosphere are
nitrogen and oxygen. These will be referred to as the major components of the
atmosphere. You should also realize that more than half of Earth's atmosphere
is composed of nitrogen (roughly 78%) with comparatively less oxygen (about
21% of the atmosphere).
• The remaining gases in Earth's atmosphere are called trace gases because
these gases make up a very small percentage of the total. By far the most
abundant of these trace gases is argon (close to 1% of the total). Even though a
small percentage of the total atmosphere, there are hundreds of trace gases in
Earth's atmosphere, and some of them are absolutely essential for life as we
know it. Notice in the pie chart that argon, carbon dioxide, and all the other
trace gases, except water vapor, make up a very small slice. For example, the
current concentration of carbon dioxide is about 400 ppm, which means that
for every 1,000,000 gas molecules only 400 of them are carbon dioxide
 Pie chart showing percentage concentrations of gases in Earth's
atmosphere. Water vapor is shown as a slice that can be up to 2%
of the total
 Composition of the earth’s
atmosphere Composition of the Atmosphere near the Earth's Surface

Permanent Gases Variable Gases

Percent
Chemical Gas Percent Parts per
Gas Name (by Volume) Symbol
Formula (and Particles) (by Volume) Million (ppm)*
Dry Air

Nitrogen N2 78.08 Water Vapor H2O 0 to 4

Oxygen O2 20.95 Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.0400 400

Argon Ar 0.93 Methane CH4 0.00017 1.7

Neon Ne 0.0018 Nitrous Oxide N2O 0.00003 0.3

Helium He 0.0005 Ozone O3 0.000004 0.04

H2 Particles (dust,
Hydrogen 0.00005 0.00001 0.01-0.15
soot, etc.)

Chlorofluorocarbo
Xenon Xe 0.000009 0.00000002 0.0002
ns (CFCs)
 Composition of the earth’s atmosphere
• Major Components of the Atmosphere
• The Atmosphere has two main components: nitrogen(78%) and oxygen(21%). These make up 99%
of the volume of "dry air". In this context "dry air" refers to all gases, except water vapor.
Remember that even under the most humid conditions on Earth, water vapor is at most 2% of the
atmosphere. Thus, if you were an alien studying the planet earth, you would report that Earth's
atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. The text below mentions the main ways that nitrogen
and oxygen gas are removed from the atmosphere and enter the atmosphere as part of chemical
cycles.
• Nitrogen:
• Removed from atmosphere by biological processes that involve soil bacteria. Returned to the
atmosphere through the decaying of plant and animal matter.
• Oxygen:
• Removed from atmosphere by when organic matter decays, combines with other substances, or is
taken in during breathing. Is added to the atmosphere through photosynthesis by plants.
• Some Important Trace Components of the Atmosphere
• Trace gases by definition are scarce in Earth's atmosphere. Yet several of these trace gases are
essential for the life that has developed on Earth.
 Composition of the earth’s
• Water Vapor: atmosphere
• The gas phase of water. Water vapor is literally individual molecules of H2O that are part of
the collection of gases in the atmosphere.
• Varies greatly from place to place, and from time to time. It averages only about 0.4% of
the atmosphere, but varies from as much as 4% in the humid tropics to near 0% in cold
polar regions.
• Enters the atmosphere through evaporation of liquid water.
• Water vapor condenses into liquid and solid cloud particles that grow in size and fall to
earth as precipitation
• Redistributes heat energy on earth and is important to the formation of storms. This is
because large quantities of energy are involved in phase changes:
• Evaporation (liquid to gas) energy is absorbed from environment
• Condensation (gas to liquid) energy is released to the environment
• Is a strong greenhouse gas that warms the earth's surface and its atmosphere. In fact
water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas on Earth in that it contributes most to
the atmospheric greenhouse effect.
 Composition of the earth’s
• Carbon Dioxide:
atmosphere
• Second most important greenhouse gas on Earth.
• Enters the atmosphere through the decay of vegetation, volcanic
eruptions, respiration, burning of fossil fuels, and from deforestation.
It is removed from the atmosphere by photosynthesis, and the
oceans.
• Concentration has been increasing due to human activities, mainly
burning fossil fuels and deforestation. The amount of carbon dioxide
has increased over 42% since 1750, from 280 ppm to 400 ppm.
• There is concern that this will strengthen the natural greenhouse
effect leading to global warming, sea level rise, and other potentially
harmful climate changes.
 Composition of the earth’s atmosphere
• Methane:
• Another greenhouse gas that is increasing due to human activity. There is concern that
the increasing amount of methane will also contribute to human caused global
warming.
• Since 1750, methane concentrations have increased by more than 150% mainly due to
human activity.
• The main sources are the breakdown of plant material in rice paddies, domestic
grazing animals (biological reactions in their stomach), biological activities of termites.
• Nitrous Oxide:
• Another important greenhouse gas. that is increasing due to human activity. There is
concern that the increasing amount of nitrous oxide will also contribute to human
caused global warming.
• Since 1750, nitrous oxide concentrations have increased by more than 20% mainly due
to human activity.
• Forms in the soil by bacterial processes and is destroy by ultraviolet light from the sun.
 Composition of the earth’s atmosphere
• Ozone:
• Most ozone is found in the stratosphere where it forms the ozone layer (~20 - 30 km above the
ground surface). The ozone layer protects plants, animals, and humans from the sun's harmful
ultraviolet radiation by absorbing the radiation.
• Very little is found naturally near the ground where it is a toxic pollutant. Sometimes dangerously
high concentrations develop near large cities in a process called photochemical smog
• Aerosols:
• Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particles that are suspended in the air. Most aerosols are
microscopic and too small to see individually without a microscope. Aerosols include things like
dust, pollen, smoke, and even cloud droplets. When there are high concentrations of aerosols in
the air, they do affect the propagation of light, and thus affect visibility. Examples are the visible
thick smoke that comes off fires and normal clouds.
• Important for climate naturally and through human activities that release aerosols into the
atmosphere
• Affect passage of solar radiation through the atmosphere
• Influence cloud formation
• Natural and manmade aerosols can affect human health
• "Particulate" air pollution
 Vertical temperature profile
• Examine how air temperature, air density, and air pressure change in
the vertical, i.e., as one moves up and down in Earth's atmosphere.
The average vertical structure of temperature, density, and pressure
in Earth's atmosphere described below is often called the "static
structure" as it does not consider large scale movements of air like
wind currents. It is like describing how the average properties of
ocean water (e.g., water temperature and salinity) change in moving
from the ocean bottom to the top of the water without considering
ocean currents.
• Temperature
• Often, the Earth's atmosphere is divided into several different layers
that are defined according to the typical change in air temperature.
• Layers of the atmosphere based on temperature
 Troposphere
• Located from the surface of the Earth to approximately 11 kilometres in altitude. This is
an average, as the depth of the troposphere varies with time and location, and ranges
from about 6 km in polar winter to about 16 km over the warmest regions of Earth.
• Troposphere literally means the "turning or changing sphere" in reference to the fact
that this lowest layer of the atmosphere is characterized by strong vertical mixing or
overturning of the air. The upper boundary of the vertical mixing is at the top of the
troposphere at the troposphere-tropopause boundary.
• Essentially all weather and clouds occur in the troposphere or this overturing layer.
• The troposphere contains about 75% of the total mass of the atmosphere.
• Typically, the maximum air temperature occurs near the Earth's surface and drops with
increasing height at an average rate of 6.5°C per 1000 meters (or 3.6°F per 1000 ft). The
reason the temperature usually decreases with increasing height is because the
atmosphere is mainly heated from below by the underlying ground surface. The gas
molecules in the atmosphere are generally transparent for visible radiation coming
from the Sun, i.e., if it is not cloudy, most of the Sun's radiation passes right through
the atmosphere, and is absorbed by the ground surface, heating the ground up. Air in
contact with the warm ground is heated from below, therefore, the air temperature
typically lowers as you move up away from the warm ground
 Troposphere
• However, it is not all that uncommon for there to be a shallow layer of air
where the air temperature actually increases with increasing altitude.
These layers are called temperature inversions and can be very important in
weather forecasting. One situation where temperature inversions
frequently form is just above the ground surface during long winter nights
caused by the air contacting the cold ground surface. This type of inversion
will persist into the early morning until the sun is able to heat the ground
surface .
• Figure also indicates the typical changes in air temperature that take place
over the course of a day. The largest change in air temperature happens
just above the ground surface with much less change higher up. The reason
is that the ground surface temperature responds more rapidly to changes in
radiation than the air. During the day, the ground surface warms rapidly by
absorbing radiation from the sun, which heats the overlying air from the
bottom up. At night, the ground surface cools rapidly by emitting (or giving
off) radiation energy, which cools the overlying air.
 Tropopause
• Isothermal (constant temperature) layer that exists above the
troposphere. On average, it is found between about 11 and 20
kilometres. At these levels the air temperature is much colder than
that found near the ground surface.
• Separates the troposphere from the stratosphere.
• This change in vertical structure of air temperature (from cooling with
increasing altitude in the troposphere to remaining constant with
increasing altitude in the tropopause), acts like a "lid" on rising air
motion. This "lid" can prevent air from moving vertically up or down
through this troposphere-tropopause boundary. Because it is difficult
for tropospheric air to rise into the tropopause region, clouds are
typically confined below the tropopause region, since clouds form in
air moving vertically upward. This is why we say most clouds and
weather are confined to the troposphere
 Stratosphere
• Extends from 20 to 48 kilometres above the surface (average location).
• Temperature increases with altitude because ozone gas molecules,
present in this layer, absorb ultraviolet sunlight creating heat energy.
• The layer of higher ozone concentrations, which reaches a maximum
between 20 and 30 km above sea level, is also called the ozone layer.
Ozone in the stratosphere protects life from harmful exposure to the
sun's ultraviolet radiation. NOTE: Even though we refer to an "ozone
layer", keep in mind that ozone molecules account for a very small
percentage of all air molecules in the stratosphere. Even within the
ozone layer, ozone is still a trace constituent.
• Above the troposphere and below the mesosphere, we have the
stratosphere. “Strat” means layer. This layer of our atmosphere has its
own set of layers. There are no storms or turbulence here to mix up the
air, so cold, heavy air is at the bottom and warm, light air is at the top
 Density

• Air density can be defined as the number of air molecules per unit
volume (number density). Near sea level there are about 2.7x1019
molecules per cm3(cubic centimetre) or 4.4x1020 molecules per
inch3(cubic inch). Air molecules are held near the earth by gravity. In
other words, air has weight.
• Weigh an empty bag, then fill it with air, it now weighs more. In
addition gases, like air, are easily compressed, i.e., squeeze a gas
together and its number density increases. In other words, we say
gases are compressible because they can easily be squeezed into a
smaller volume. Solids and liquids on the other hand are not easily
compressed.
 Density
• The weight of all of the air above a given point in the atmosphere
squeezes air molecules closer together, which causes their numbers in
a given volume to increase (increase in number density). The more air
above a level (and hence the more weight of air above a level), the
greater the squeezing effect (or compression).
• Since air density is the number of air molecules in a given space
(volume), air density is typically greatest at the surface or sea level
(where it is squeezed by the weight of the entire atmosphere above)
and decreases as we move up in the atmosphere because the weight of
air above becomes less and hence there is less of a squeezing effect.
The decrease in air number density with increasing elevation is also
depicted in the figure on the right
 Mesosphere
• These layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere.
• The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying
the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends
from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the
mesopause at 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft) above sea level.
• The stratopause (formerly mesopeak) is the level of the atmosphere which is
the boundary between two layers: the stratosphere and the mesosphere.
• The stratopause is a transition layer between the stratosphere and the
mesosphere, which are both considered part of the middle atmosphere. The
stratosphere is a stable layer where the temperature increases with altitude
due to UV absorption by ozone and molecular oxygen. The stratopause is also
the location of the ozone layer, which blocks most solar radiation that could
harm life on Earth
 Mesosphere
• The mesopause is the boundary between the mesosphere and the
thermosphere, the two layers of Earth's atmosphere. The mesopause
is the coldest part of the atmosphere, while the thermosphere is the
second highest layer and can reach very high temperature. The
mesopause is the point of minimum temperature at the boundary
between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric
regions.
• The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is called the
thermosphere. High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from the Sun are
absorbed in the thermosphere, raising its temperature to hundreds or
at times thousands of degrees. However, the air in this layer is so thin
that it would feel freezing cold.
 Atmospheric Pressure

• Atmospheric air pressure results from the Earth's gravitational pull on the
overlying air. Without gravity holding the atmosphere just above the
ground surface, air molecules would spread out, and the gas pressure
would be close to zero.
• The weight of the atmosphere acts as a force upon the underlying surface
of the Earth. The amount of force exerted over an area of surface is called
atmospheric pressure or air pressure. Near sea level, the average air
pressure is about 14.7 pounds per square inch. In this class we will use the
unit millibars(mb) to specify air pressure. At sea level the average air
pressure is 1013 mb. Another way to think of this is that on average the
total weight of all the air above sea levels weighs enough to cause 1013 mb
of air pressure. Please keep in mind that 1013 mb is just the average air
pressure at an altitude of sea level. It is very important to realize that the
air pressure is not constant at a given altitude, e.g., sea level pressure
commonly ranges from 980 mb to 1045 mb, since variations in air pressure
along a horizontal surface cause horizontal winds to blow
 Atmospheric Pressure

• Since the air (a gas) is a fluid, the pressure force acts in all directions, not just
downward. The pressure force pushing downward due to the weight of the air is the
same as the pressure force acting sideways and even upward. If you are having
trouble understanding this, make an analogy with another fluid liquid water.
Consider a deep swimming pool full of water. The water pressure anywhere in the
pool depends on the weight of the water above (that is the deeper you dive
downward in the pool, the stronger the water pressure.) The pressure force is not
just downward though, it pushes in on your body from all directions. The average air
pressure at sea level (1013 mb or sometimes called one atmosphere of pressure) is
caused by the weight of all the air above sea level. In the same way water pressure is
caused by the weight of water above you.
• At a depth of 32 feet (9.75 meters) below a water surface, the water pressure is
about 1013 mb, which is known as one atmosphere of air pressure. Thus, the entire
column of air from sea level to outer space weighs as much as a 32 foot column of
water. Of course diving deeper than 32 feet downward into water means you will
encounter an increasing water pressure (enough to crush you if you go too deep).
And yes the total pressure under water would include both the overlying air
pressure (about 1013 mb at sea level) plus the added water pressure.
 Atmospheric Pressure
• In the atmosphere, the air pressure at any point is caused by the weight per area
of the air above that point. As we climb in elevation, fewer air molecules are
above us (less weight of air above us); hence, atmospheric pressure always
decreases as you move upward in the atmosphere . Another way to look at it is
that the air pressure at any point in the atmosphere is exactly enough to support
the weight of the column of air above it. A balance (or near balance) exists
between the gravitational force pushing air downward and the upward directed
pressure gradient force. This is called hydrostatic balance . The atmosphere is
usually in hydrostatic balance or very close to hydrostatic balance, which means
vertical motions in the atmosphere are generally weak, since the net vertical force
is generally small. However, even weak vertical air motions are important since
clouds and precipitation form in places where the air is moving upward.
• Earlier we made an analogy between diving down in water and moving downward
in the atmosphere. In both cases, the fluid pressure increases as you move down
because there is more and more weight of fluid above you. A big difference
between water and air, though, is that air is compressible and water is not. This
affects the rate of pressure changes as one moves up or down in the fluid.
 Atmospheric Pressure

• Because air is compressed by its own weight, much of the mass of the atmosphere is squeezed into
the troposphere where the air is most dense (higher number density), while only a small portion of
the mass of the atmosphere remains above the stratosphere where air is less dense (lower number
density). Since air pressure is directly related to the weight of air above a given point, a ratio of air
pressure is equivalent to a ratio of weight.
• If you do not know the sea level air pressure, you can 1000 mb as a good approximation. Thus, at a
location where the air pressure is 500 mb, roughly half the weight of the atmosphere is above you
and the other half is below you. A typical 500 mb height is about 5500 meters or 5.5 km above sea
level. Thus, half the weight of the atmosphere is compressed into the vertical column from sea level
up to about 5.5 km above the surface while the other half is spread out from 5.5 km upward to the
top of the atmosphere, somewhere around 500 km above sea level. This happens because the
number density is greatest just above the ground surface and decreases as you move upward. Note in
the figure above how rapidly air pressure drops as you move up above the surface where number
density is largest, but that the rate of pressure drop slows down as you move to higher altitudes
where the number density is much smaller. This is characteristic of an exponential decrease in air
pressure with increasing height. On average in Earth's atmosphere, the air pressure approximately
drops in half for every 5.5 km increase in altitude. The air pressure is roughly 1000 mb at sea level,
500 mb at 5.5 km above sea level, 250 mb at 11 km above sea level, 125 mb at 16.5 km above sea
level, and so forth. The figure above also shows that on average the top of the troposphere is located
at a pressure of about 250 mb. Using the equation above, this means that 25% of the mass of the
atmosphere is above the troposphere and 75% of the mass of the atmosphere is contained in the
troposphere as stated in the temperature section above.
 Pressure

Measured air pressure at

your location

Fraction of the atmosphere above you by

=
weight

Sea level air pressure

 Sun is the principal energy source for
atmospheric processes
• Solar radiation is the fundamental energy driving our climate system,
and nearly all climatic and biologic processes on Earth are dependent
on solar input. Energy from the sun is essential for many processes on
Earth including warming of the surface, evaporation, photosynthesis,
and atmospheric circulation.
• Sunlight travels through space at nearly 300,000 kilometres per second
(186,000 miles per second). When sunlight strikes the Earth, it is
mostly reflected or absorbed. Reflected light bounces back into space
while absorbed light is the source of energy that drives processes in
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
• Changes in the proportion of incoming solar radiation that is reflected
instead of absorbed depends on the composition of Earth’s surface and
atmosphere, and can alter global climate and ecosystems.
Absorption and reflection of sunlight
• The Sun provides the Earth with most of its energy. Today, about 71% of the
sunlight that reaches the Earth is absorbed by its surface and atmosphere.
Absorption of sunlight causes the molecules of the object or surface it strikes
to vibrate faster, increasing its temperature. This energy is then re-radiated by
the Earth as longwave, infrared radiation, also known as heat. The more
sunlight a surface absorbs, the warmer it gets, and the more energy it re-
radiates as heat. This re-radiated heat is then absorbed and re-radiated by
greenhouse gases and clouds, and warm the atmosphere through the
greenhouse effect.
• Earth’s surfaces are better at absorbing solar radiation than air, especially
surfaces that are dark in colour. You can feel this on a cold winter day when
the sunshine warms your face and the air around you remains cold. Your skin
and your clothes also absorb solar radiation and convert it to heat. If you
wear a black jacket, it will absorb more radiation and make you feel warmer
than if you wear a white or light-coloured jacket. Similarly, Earth’s different
surfaces and parts of the atmosphere absorb solar radiation at different rates.
 Solar radiation
• Because Earth is a sphere, not all part of the Earth receives the same
amount of solar radiation. More solar radiation is received and
absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the
Sun’s rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays
strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed
per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower
latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles.
• This temperature difference shapes global atmospheric and ocean
circulation patterns. Additionally, Earth’s tilt affects how much sunlight
is received and absorbed by different parts of the Earth at various
times of the year, and is why we experience the seasons. The amount
of solar radiation received and absorbed also influences process in the
biosphere by directly affecting plants and other organisms that
photosynthesize and are the primary food source in most ecosystems.
 Solar radiation
• If light is not absorbed by a surface, it is mostly reflected. Reflection occurs
when incoming solar radiation bounces back from an object or surface
that it strikes in the atmosphere, on land, or water, and is not transformed
into heat. The proportion of incoming solar radiation that is reflected by
the Earth is known as its albedo. Overall, Earth reflects about 29% of the
incoming solar radiation, and therefore, we say the Earth’s average albedo
is 0.29.
• Snow and ice, airborne particles, and certain gases have high albedos and
reflect different amounts of sunlight back into space. Low, thick clouds are
reflective and can block sunlight from reaching the Earth’s surface, while
high, thin clouds can contribute to the greenhouse effect.
• The proportion of sunlight that’s reflected vs. absorbed, the re-radiation of
heat, and the intensity of the greenhouse effect influence the amount of
energy in the Earth system and global processes such as the water cycle
and atmospheric and ocean circulation
 Solar radiation
• Solar radiation is made up of visible light and infrared heat waves. When it reaches Earth, it can be
absorbed, reflected, or scattered.
• Absorption
• The Earth's atmosphere absorbs most of the solar radiation.
• The Earth's surface absorbs most of the remaining energy.
• The amount of radiation absorbed depends on the chemical composition and physical structure of
the material.
• Reflection
• Some solar radiation bounces off the Earth's atmosphere.
• The amount of radiation reflected depends on the angle of incidence and the material's surface.
• Specular reflection: Light reflects off a surface in one direction, like a mirror.
• Diffuse reflection: Light reflects off a surface in all directions.
• Albedo: The amount of solar radiation reflected back into space before reaching the Earth's surface.
• Scattering
• Light waves bounce off gas molecules in the atmosphere.
• Scattering can produce different colours, like in sunrises and sunsets.
• These processes allow the Earth to maintain the right amount of heat and light for life
 Insolation
• The Earth is "constantly" bathed in solar radiation. On average, the
Earth receives 1368 W/m2 (1.96 ly/min) of solar radiation at the outer
edge of the atmosphere, called the "solar constant". However, the
actual amount received at the edge of the atmosphere and the
Earth's surface varies from place to place and day to day on account
of the orientation of the Earth to the Sun. The solar radiation that
makes its way through the atmosphere and to the surface is called
insolation.
• The amount of insolation received at the surface depends on
• 1) the sun angle, 2) day length, 3) ground slope,
• 4) path length, and 5) the state of the atmosphere.
• Sun Angle and Insolation
 Insolation
• The amount and intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earth is affected by the
tilt of the Earth's axis and its orientation as it revolves around the Sun. The sun
angle at a place varies over the course of the year as a result of the constant tilt
and parallelism of the earth's axis. As the sun angle decreases, light is spread
over a larger area and decreases in intensity (energy input per unit area).
• Daylength and Insolation
• The Earth System we discovered that the tilt of the earth's axis and constant
parallelism of the earth as it revolves around the sun causes day length to
change throughout the year, except for the equator. The circle of illumination
always bisects the equator resulting in equal day length, but cuts all other
latitude unequally, yielding unequal periods of day and night except for the
equinoxes. Simply put, the longer the daylight period, the more insolation
received at a given location.
• Ground Slope and Insolation
• The slope of the surface that a beam of light strikes affects the intensity of
energy it receives. Slope affects insolation intensity in two ways, 1) the degree of
 Insolation
• The amount of insolation that reaches a location on Earth is affected by latitude,
the sun's declination, and the length of daylight:
• Latitude
• The angle at which the sun's rays hit the Earth varies by latitude. Regions closer to
the equator receive more direct sunlight and higher insolation than polar regions.
This is because the sun's rays are more concentrated over a smaller area at the
equator, resulting in warmer temperatures.
• Sun's declination
• The sun's declination is the angular distance north or south of the equator where
the sun is directly overhead. The sun's declination reaches a maximum of 23.45° on
the summer solstice and a minimum of -23.45° on the winter solstice.
• Length of daylight
• The length of daylight varies by latitude and season. For example, the Equator
experiences equal day and night every day, while locations in the Northern
Hemisphere have longer days during the summer and shorter days during the
winter.
 Insolation
• The varying incidence angle of the sun rays and length of day affects
the latitudinal variation in the amount of insolation on the earth
surface. Consequently, within the tropics, the total insolation is more
than higher latitudes
• The latitudinal variation of insolation (about 2.6 times greater at the
equator than at the poles) provides energy differences that are vital
elements of atmospheric circulation and terrestrial weathering.
• Energy from the Sun that makes its way to Earth can have trouble
finding its way back out to space. The greenhouse effect causes some
of this energy to be waylaid in the atmosphere, absorbed and
released by greenhouse gases. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth's
temperature would be below freezing.
 Greenhouse effect

• The greenhouse effect is a process that traps heat in the Earth's

atmosphere, causing the surface temperature to rise. Greenhouse gases
absorb infrared radiation from the sun and radiate it back to the Earth's
surface, warming the atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the
Earth's surface temperature would be much colder.
• The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon and beneficial to life on
Earth. However, global warming is produced as a consequence of the
combustion of fossil gases expelled by industry, livestock, vehicles and
other terrestrial elements, which generate an increase in global
temperature
• Global warming- Global warming is the gradual increase in the Earth's
average temperature. The main cause of global warming is the increased
amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which is due to human
activities like burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial waste.
 Heat exchange processes

• Heat exchange processes- Heat is transferred through the atmosphere by

conduction, convection, and radiation:
• Conduction: Heat is transferred through a stationary material by physical contact.
• Convection: Heat is transferred through the movement of a fluid.
• Radiation: Heat is transferred through the emission or absorption of
electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared radiation, visible light, or microwaves.
• The energy entering, reflected, absorbed, and emitted by the Earth system are
the components of the Earth's radiation budget. Based on the physics principle
of conservation of energy, this radiation budget represents the accounting of the
balance between incoming radiation, which is almost entirely solar radiation, and
outgoing radiation, which is partly reflected solar radiation and partly radiation
emitted from the Earth system, including the atmosphere. A budget that's out of
balance can cause the temperature of the atmosphere to increase or decrease
and eventually affect our climate. The units of energy employed in measuring this
incoming and outgoing radiation are watts per square meter (W/m2).
 INCOMING SOLAR RADIATION

• Incoming ultraviolet, visible, and a limited portion of infrared energy (together

sometimes called "shortwave radiation") from the Sun drive the Earth's climate
system. Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed
by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger
aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the
radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm. The heat generated by this absorption
is emitted as longwave infrared radiation, some of which radiates out into space.
• ABSORBED ENERGY
• The solar radiation that passes through Earth's atmosphere is either reflected off
snow, ice, or other surfaces or is absorbed by the Earth's surface.
• Emitted LONGWAVE Radiation
• Heat resulting from the absorption of incoming shortwave radiation is emitted as
longwave radiation. Radiation from the warmed upper atmosphere, along with a
small amount from the Earth's surface, radiates out to space. Most of the emitted
longwave radiation warms the lower atmosphere, which in turn warms our
planet's surface.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

• GREENHOUSE EFFECT -Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (such as water vapor

and carbon dioxide) absorb most of the Earth's emitted longwave infrared
radiation, which heats the lower atmosphere. In turn, the warmed atmosphere
emits longwave radiation, some of which radiates toward the Earth's surface,
keeping our planet warm and generally comfortable. Increasing concentrations of
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane increase the temperature
of the lower atmosphere by restricting the outward passage of emitted radiation,
resulting in "global warming," or, more broadly, global climate change.
• RADIATION AND THE CLIMATE SYSTEM- For scientists to understand climate
change, they must also determine what drives the changes within the Earth's
radiation budget. The Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES)
instrument aboard NASA's Aqua and Terra satellites measures the shortwave
radiation reflected and longwave radiation emitted into space accurately enough
for scientists to determine the Earth's total radiation budget. Other NASA
instruments monitor changes in other aspects of the Earth's climate system—such
as clouds, aerosol particles, and surface reflectivity—and scientists are examining
their many interactions with the radiation budget.
 Atmospheric Pollution

• Ozone depletion, gradual thinning of Earth's ozone layer in the upper

atmosphere caused by the release of chemical compounds containing
gaseous chlorine or bromine from industry and other human activities.
The thinning is most pronounced in the polar regions, especially over
Antarctica
• Atmospheric Pollution
• Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as
gaseous and particulate contaminants that are present in the earth’s
atmosphere. Chemicals discharged into the air that have a direct
impact on the environment are called primary pollutants. These
primary pollutants sometimes react with other chemicals in the air to
produce secondary pollutants
 Ozone Depletion

• The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)

and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the
atmosphere. CFC molecules are extremely stable, and they do not
dissolve in rain. After a period of several years, ODS molecules reach
the stratosphere, about 10 kilometres above the Earth’s surface. CFCs
were used by industry as refrigerants, degreasing solvents, and
propellants.
• Acid Rain
• Acid rain is a term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition
(deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than
normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. The precursors, or
chemical forerunners, of acid rain formation result from both natural
sources, such as volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made
sources, primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides
 Ozone Depletion
• Climate Change - Earth’s temperature depends on the balance
between energy entering and leaving the planet. When incoming
energy from the sun is absorbed, Earth warms. When the sun’s energy
is reflected back into space, Earth avoids warming. When energy is
released from Earth into space, the planet cools. Many factors, both
natural and human, can cause changes in Earth’s energy balance.
• Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the
late 1970s: a steady lowering of about four percent in the total
amount of ozone in Earth's atmosphere, and a much larger springtime
decrease in stratospheric ozone (the ozone layer) around Earth's polar
regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole.
There are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events
in addition to these stratospheric events.
 Ozone Depletion

• The main causes of ozone depletion and the ozone hole are manufactured chemicals,
especially manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-
blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-
depleting substances (ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by
turbulent mixing after being emitted from the surface, mixing much faster than the
molecules can settle. Once in the stratosphere, they release atoms from the halogen
group through photodissociation, which catalyse the breakdown of ozone (O3) into
oxygen (O2). Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of
halocarbons increased.
• Ozone depletion and the ozone hole have generated worldwide concern over increased
cancer risks and other negative effects. The ozone layer prevents harmful wavelengths of
ultraviolet (UVB) light from passing through the Earth's atmosphere. These wavelengths
cause skin cancer, sunburn, permanent blindness, and cataracts, which were projected
to increase dramatically as a result of thinning ozone, as well as harming plants and
animals. These concerns led to the adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, which
bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals. Over time,
scientists have developed new refrigerants with lower global warming potential (GWP)
to replace older ones. For example, in new automobiles, R-1234yf systems are now
common, being chosen over refrigerants with much higher GWP such as R-134a and R-
 Atmospheric pressure
• Atmospheric pressure, force per unit area exerted by an atmospheric column
(that is, the entire body of air above the specified area).
• Atmospheric pressure can be measured with a mercury barometer (hence the
commonly used synonym barometric pressure), which indicates the height of
a column of mercury that exactly balances the weight of the column of
atmosphere over the barometer. Atmospheric pressure is also measured using
an aneroid barometer, in which the sensing element is one or more hollow,
partially evacuated, corrugated metal disks supported against collapse by an
inside or outside spring; the change in the shape of the disk with changing
pressure can be recorded using a pen arm and a clock-driven revolving drum.
• Atmospheric pressure is expressed in several different systems of units:
millimetres (or inches) of mercury, pounds per square inch (psi), dynes per
square centimetre, millibars (mb), standard atmospheres, or kilopascals.
• Standard sea-level pressure, by definition, equals each of the following:
 Atmospheric pressure
• 760 mm (29.92 inches) of mercury
• 14.70 pounds per square inch
• 1,013.25 × 103 dynes per square centimeter
• 1,013.25 millibars
• one standard atmosphere
• 101.325 kilopascals
 Atmospheric pressure
• The atoms and molecules that make up the various layers of the atmosphere are
constantly moving in random directions. Despite their tiny size, when they strike a
surface, they exert a force on that surface in what we observe as pressure.
• Each molecule is too small to feel and only exerts a tiny bit of force. However, when we
sum the total forces from the large number of molecules that strike a surface each
moment, then the total observed pressure can be considerable.
• Air pressure can be increased or decreased in one of two ways. First, simply adding
molecules to a container will increase the pressure because a larger number of molecules
will increase the number of collisions with the container's boundary. This is observed as
an increase in pressure.
• A good example of this is adding or subtracting air in an automobile tire. By adding air, the
number of molecules increases, as does the total number of the collisions with the tire's
inner boundary. The increased number of collisions increases the pressure and forces the
tire to expand in size.
• The second way of changing air pressure is by the addition or subtraction of heat. Adding
heat to a container can transfer energy to air molecules. Heated molecules move with
increased velocity, striking the container's boundary with greater force, which is observed
as an increase in pressure.
 Atmospheric pressure
• Since molecules move in all directions, they can even exert air pressure upwards
as they smash into object from underneath. In the atmosphere, air pressure can
be exerted in all directions.
• As elevation increases, the number of molecules decreases and the density of air
therefore is less, which means there is a decrease in air pressure. In fact, while the
atmosphere extends hundreds of miles up, one half of the air molecules in the
atmosphere are contained within the first 18,000 feet (5.6 km).
• This decrease in pressure with height makes it very hard to compare the air
pressure at ground level from one location to another, especially when the
elevations of each site differ. Therefore, to give meaning to the pressure values
observed at each station, we convert the station air pressures reading to a value
with a common denominator.
• The common denominator we use is the sea-level elevation. At observation
stations around the world, the air pressure reading, regardless of the observation
station elevation, is converted to a value that would be observed if that
instrument were located at sea level.
 Atmospheric pressure
• Bar is from the Greek "báros", meaning weight. A millibar is 1/1000th of a bar and is
approximately equal to 1000 dynes (one dyne is the amount of force it takes to
accelerate an object with a mass of one gram at the rate of one centimetre per
second squared). Millibar values used in meteorology range from about 100 to 1050.
At sea level, standard air pressure in millibars is 1013.2. Weather maps showing the
pressure at the surface are drawn using millibars.
• Although the changes are usually too slow to observe directly, air pressure is almost
always changing. This change in pressure is caused by changes in air density, and air
density is related to temperature.
• Warm air is less dense than cooler air because the gas molecules in warm air have a
greater velocity and are farther apart than in cooler air. So, while the average altitude
of the 500 millibar level is around 18,000 feet (5,600 meters) the actual elevation will
be higher in warm air than in cold air.
• The most basic change in pressure is the twice daily rise and fall due to the heat from
the sun. Each day, the pressure is at its lowest around 4 a.m./p.m., and at its highest
around 10 a.m./p.m. The magnitude of the daily cycle is greatest near the equator,
decreasing toward the poles. On top of the daily fluctuations are the larger pressure
 Environmental lapse rate and inversion
• The environmental lapse rate refers to the actual rate at which the air temperature
decreases with altitude in a specific location and at a given time. On average, the
environmental lapse rate is around 6.5°C per kilometre in the troposphere
• Environmental lapse rate (ELR)
• The average ELR is about 6.5 °C per kilometre, but it can vary by region, airstream,
and season. The ELR is affected by radiation, convection, and condensation.
• Temperature inversion
• A temperature inversion occurs when the lapse rate is negative, meaning the
temperature increases with height. This is a reversal of the normal behaviour of
temperature in the troposphere, where temperature usually decreases with
altitude.
• Temperature inversions are usually short-lived but common. They are caused by
stable atmospheric conditions, or by the horizontal or vertical movement of air.
During an inversion, a layer of warm air sits on top of a layer of cold air. This stable
air mass acts like a lid or cap, which reduces the diffusion of air pollutants and
traps them near the ground. This can lead to increased concentrations of smog
 Diurnal, seasonal and geographical variation of temperature
• Temperature varies in different ways based on the time of day, season,
and location:
• Diurnal variation- The change in temperature from day to night
caused by the Earth's rotation. The difference between the maximum
and minimum temperatures in a day is called the diurnal temperature
range. Deserts have the greatest diurnal temperature range, while
low-lying humid areas have the least.
• Seasonal variation- The change in temperature caused by the Earth's
tilt and orbit around the sun. These changes result in the four
seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
• Geographical variation -The amount of solar energy a region receives
varies based on its latitude, time of day, and season. Other factors
that affect temperature include topography and altitude
 Diurnal, seasonal and geographical variation of
temperature
• Some other factors that affect temperature include:
• Urban heat islands: Large cities have lower diurnal temperature ranges
than surrounding areas.
• Humidity: Humidity traps the sun's heat, so areas with more humidity
have smaller diurnal temperature ranges.
• Distance from the sea: Areas away from the sea experience more
extreme temperatures due to the lack of sea and land breezes.
• Surface: The surface's material, moisture content, and vegetation cover
affect how warm it gets. For example, dry sand heats up quickly
because it's a poor heat conductor.
• Wind: Wind can mix the air, which can affect temperature
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) & Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(SALR)
• The DALR is approximately 3°C/1000 feet. In other words until air becomes
saturated, it behaves like dry air. The SALR is the rate at which the temperature of a
parcel of air saturated with water vapour changes as the parcel ascends or
descends.
• Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) and Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) are
both rates at which the temperature of air changes as it moves through the
atmosphere:
• DALR-The rate at which the temperature of dry air changes as it moves through the
atmosphere. DALR is approximately 3°C per 1,000 feet. It's constant because the air
is dry and hasn't reached saturation or condensed.
• SALR- The rate at which the temperature of moist air changes as it moves through
the atmosphere. SALR varies with the temperature and pressure of the parcel, and
is often in the range 3.6 to 9.2 °C/km (2 to 5 °F/1,000 ft).
• The adiabatic lapse rate is the decrease in temperature of a parcel of air that rises
in the atmosphere without exchanging energy with surrounding air. It plays a
significant role in various atmospheric phenomena and significantly influences our
Saturation; Evaporation, Condensation, Latent Heat, and Vapour Pressure

• Saturation, evaporation, condensation, latent heat, and vapor pressure are

all related to the exchange of energy and matter between a liquid and its
vapor:
• Saturation- Occurs when the rate of evaporation equals the rate of
condensation, meaning the number of vapor molecules above the liquid
remains constant. The pressure at which this occurs is known as the
saturated vapor pressure (SVP).
• Evaporation- The process by which a liquid turns into vapor.
• Condensation -The process by which vapor molecules bond with liquid
molecules and turn back into a liquid.
• Latent heat of vaporization-The amount of heat required to turn one
kilogram of a liquid at its boiling point into vapor without changing its
temperature.
• Vapor pressure- The pressure exerted by water vapor molecules in a
 Isobar, Diurnal variation of pressure, Barometric
tendency, Pressure Gradient wind
• Isobars - Lines on a weather map that connect locations with the same
atmospheric pressure. Isobars are useful for weather prediction,
particularly for wind prediction. The spacing of isobars indicates the rate
and direction of pressure change, known as the pressure gradient.
• Diurnal variation of pressure- Fluctuations in pressure that occur during
the day. For example, in the Garhwal Himalaya, pressure minima are
usually observed in the evening and early hours.
• Barometric tendency - The rise of a barometer can indicate different
weather conditions. For example, in winter, a rising barometer can
indicate frost or snow.
• Pressure gradient wind - A wind vector that occurs when the Coriolis
force is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the pressure
gradient force. The direction of this vector is along the lines of constant
pressure.
 ISOBARS
• Isobars are lines on a weather map joining together places of equal
atmospheric pressure.
• On the map the isobar marked 1004 represents an area of high pressure, while
the isobar marked 976 represents an area of low pressure.
• Many weather phenomena depend on differences in air pressure. Therefore, in
weather prediction, it is helpful to visualize atmospheric pressures on a map.
Isobars enable meteorologists to see areas of high and low pressure, and
regions in which the pressure is changing drastically over a short span of
distance. The definition of an isobar is: a curve on a weather map that passes
through isobaric locations , which are locations that have the same air pressure
as each other
• What does it mean when isobars are close together
• Each isobar shows an atmospheric pressure. Therefore, when isobars are close
together, it means that many atmospheric pressures exist within a small area.
As a result of these large pressure variations in a small area, strong winds tend
to occur.
 ISOBARS
• What does it mean when isobars are close together - Each isobar shows an
atmospheric pressure. Therefore, when isobars are close together, it means
that many atmospheric pressures exist within a small area. As a result of
these large pressure variations in a small area, strong winds tend to occur.
• What are isobars in weather - Isobars are lines on a map that pass through
areas with the same pressure. The prefix "iso-" means same, and "bar" is a
unit of measure for pressure. The word "isobar" thus means "same
pressure."
• How do you read isobars - Each isobar represents a certain pressure, such
as 1,006 millibars. Each isobar is labelled with its pressure. On some maps,
H and L are printed to indicate areas of high and low pressure systems.
• What is the pressure gradient and isobar - Where the isobars are close
together, the horizontal pressure gradient force is large; where the isobars
are far apart, it is weak. A large (steep) gradient produces strong winds.
Weaker winds are found in areas with gentle pressure gradients. The
 ISOBARS
• The Pressure of Atmosphere is the force exerted on surface of unit area by the air.
When the air is at rest, the pressure exerted is called “Static Pressure” or simply
“Barometric Pressure”.
• When the air is in motion, the pressure exerted is called “Dynamic Pressure” or
“Wind Pressure”. In meteorology, we are concerned only with static pressure or
Barometric Pressure.
• The air is held close to earth by gravitational attraction. The pressure would
decrease with height in the atmosphere.
• The pressure observations are reduced to mean seal level for comparison purpose.
The Pressure values recorded at different heights will be different. Reduction of
pressure to mean sea level is important in order to find out areas of Low/High
pressure.
• Isobars are lines joining the places of equal pressure.
• Unit of pressure is millibar or Hecta Pascal(HPA)1 HPA=1000 dynes. One dyne is the
force required to produce an acceleration of 1 cm per sec. 2 in mass of one gram.
• Isobars are drawn an interval of 2 HPA(mb) in India
ISOBARS
 ISOBARS
• Standardisation: So that proper comparisons can be made, the reading of the
barometers, two more corrections are necessary, correction for difference of
latitude away from 45 deg and correction for temperature variation from the
standard temperature of that barometer.
• For standardization, isobars are drawn at 4 mb intervals and the pressure
denoted by an isobar must be divisible by four ie. 996,1000,1004, where
consecutive isobars are very far apart, intermediate isobars at 2 mb intervals may
be inserted as per GMT.
• Isobars are smooth lines which curve gently without any sudden changes of
direction except at ‘fronts’ where they may change direction suddenly by as much
as 90 deg.
• Isobars cannot cross or meet because one place can not have different values of
atmospheric pressure at the same time.
• Past weather and weather maps found that isobaric patterns fall into seven basic
types and the weather associated with each type could be predicted with
reasonable accuracy based on past experience
 Diurnal Variation of Pressure
• The pressure is maximum at 1000 hrs & 2200 hrs. Minimum at 0400
hrs & 1600 h rs. (Local time). The range of oscillation is high in the
tropics being 3 to 4 HPA in places like India. At poles, the oscillation of
range is minimum. At mid latitude, daily range is somewhat moderate
(1-2 HPA). In winter, the pressures are high. In summer, the pressures
are low
• Seven basic Isobaric patterns
• Straight Isobars: Straight isobars are said to exist when the isobars
run straight and nearly parallel for a few 100 miles. The pressure
gradient is usually low, resulting in low wind speeds. Wind direction
and force remain constant so long as the isobars remain unchanged.
The weather associated with straight isobars cannot be defined as it
depends on the properties of the air mass in which these isobars exist
 Barometric tendency

• Barometric tendency is the change in atmospheric pressure over a

specific period of time, usually the previous three hours
• The character and amount of atmospheric pressure change during a
specified period of time, often a three-hour period preceding an
observation.
• Pressure tendency is composed of two parts, the pressure change and
the pressure characteristic. The pressure change is the net difference
between pressure readings at the beginning and ending of a specified
interval of time. The pressure characteristic is an indication of how
the pressure has been changing during that specified period of time,
for example, decreasing then increasing, or increasing and then
increasing more rapidly.
 Wind
• Wind is the movement of air or other gases relative to a
planet's surface. In meteorology, wind is usually described by
its horizontal speed and direction. For example, a west wind
at 15 miles per hour (24 kilometres per hour) means that the
wind is coming from the west at that speed.
• Wind is caused by pressure differences, which are created by
temperature differences. The sun's uneven heating of the
Earth's surface, along with the Earth's rotation, creates these
differences.
• Wind can range from light breezes to natural hazards like
hurricanes and tornadoes
 Pressure gradient force
• Pressure Gradient Force directed from high to low pressure. The change in
pressure measured across a given distance is called a "pressure gradient".
The pressure gradient results in a net force that is directed from high to
low pressure and this force is called the "pressure gradient force
• The strength of the pressure gradient force is proportional to the pressure
gradient, which is a measure of how close together the isobars are. The
closer the isobars, the stronger the pressure gradient force, and the
stronger the wind
• Pressure Gradient Force- The force generated by variations in
atmospheric pressure can be attributed to differences in pressure. The
pressure gradient refers to the rate at which pressure changes in relation
to distance. A stronger pressure gradient occurs when isobars (lines
connecting points of equal pressure) are closely spaced, while a weaker
pressure gradient is observed when isobars are farther apart.
 Coriolis (geostrophic) force and cyclostrophic winds, surface
wind circulation around high- and low-pressure centres.

• The Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force combine to

create geostrophic winds, which move parallel to isobars
(lines of constant pressure).
• Coriolis force - Caused by the Earth's rotation, this force
deflects moving air or water to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere.
• Pressure gradient force- This force pushes air from areas of
high pressure to areas of low pressure.
• Geostrophic wind -The result of the Coriolis force and
pressure gradient force balancing each other out. This
happens when the wind moves parallel to isobars
 Coriolis (geostrophic) force and cyclostrophic winds, surface wind
circulation around high- and low-pressure centres .

• Geostrophic motion, fluid flow in a direction parallel to lines of equal

pressure (isobars) in a rotating system, such as the Earth. Such flow is
produced by the balance of the Coriolis force (q.v.; caused by the
Earth's rotation) and the pressure-gradient force.
• In atmospheric science, geostrophic flow is the theoretical wind that
would result from an exact balance between the Coriolis force and
the pressure
• Around high pressure systems (H), air is directed outward from the
centre. Around low pressure systems (L) air is directed inward toward
the centre. If pressure gradient was the only force acting on the air,
wind would move directly across isobars at a perpendicular angle
 Coriolis (geostrophic) force
• Frictional Force-The speed of the wind is influenced by it. The
greatest impact is observed at the surface, and its effects typically
reach up to an altitude of 1 – 3 km. In contrast, there is minimal
friction over the surface of the sea.
• Coriolis Force- The movement of the Earth around its axis
influences the wind’s direction. This phenomenon is known as the
Coriolis force, named after the French physicist who first explained it
in 1844.
• In the northern hemisphere, the wind is deflected towards the right,
while in the southern hemisphere, it is deflected towards the left. The
degree of deflection increases with higher wind speeds. The Coriolis
force is directly linked to the latitude angle, being strongest at the
poles and non-existent at the equator.
 Atmospheric System
• The atmospheric pressure is the weight of a column of air per unit
area extending from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere.
It is quantified in millibar units.
• The uneven distribution of temperature on Earth’s surface leads to
variations in atmospheric pressure. When air is heated, it expands,
and when it cools, it gets compressed.
• This causes air to move from areas of high pressure to low pressure,
setting it in motion. The movement of wind helps distribute heat and
moisture across the planet, thereby maintaining a consistent
temperature overall.
• Moist air rises vertically, cools, and forms clouds, which eventually
result in precipitation. Gravity causes the air near the surface to be
denser, resulting in higher pressure. The measurement of air pressure
is done using a mercury barometer.
 Vertical Variation of Pressure

• Vertical Variation of Pressure

• In the lower atmosphere, the pressure diminishes quickly as the
altitude increases. Approximately 1 mb of pressure is lost for every 10
m increase in elevation. However, the rate of decrease may vary.
• While the vertical pressure gradient force is significantly greater than
the horizontal pressure gradient force, it is typically counterbalanced
by an almost equal and opposite gravitational force. As a result, we do
not encounter strong upward winds.
 Horizontal Variation of Pressure

• Horizontal Variation of Pressure

• The wind direction and velocity are greatly influenced by even small
differences in pressure. To analyse the horizontal distribution of
pressure, isobars are employed, which are lines connecting locations
with equal pressure.
• To account for the impact of altitude on pressure, measurements are
taken at weather stations and then adjusted to sea level for comparison
purposes. Weather maps display the distribution of pressure at sea
level.
• Pressure systems can be identified by studying the patterns of isobars. A
low-pressure system is characterized by one or more isobars
surrounding the centre with the lowest pressure.
• Similarly, a high-pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars
with the highest pressure at its centre.
 Pressure and Wind
• The speed and path of the wind are determined by a combination of factors. In the upper
atmosphere, approximately 2 – 3 km above the Earth’s surface, the wind is not influenced by
surface friction.
• Instead, it is primarily influenced by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When the
lines connecting areas of equal pressure (isobars) are straight and there is no friction, the
pressure gradient force is counterbalanced by the Coriolis force.
• As a result, the wind blows parallel to the isobars in this scenario, and it is referred to as the
geostrophic wind.
• In atmospheric Circulation, the circulation of wind around a low pressure system is known as
cyclonic circulation, while around a high pressure system it is referred to as anticyclone
circulation.
• The direction of winds around these systems varies depending on their location in different
hemispheres. The wind circulation near the Earth’s surface around lows and highs is often
closely linked to the wind circulation at higher altitudes.
• Typically, air converges and rises over areas of low pressure, while over areas of high pressure,
air subsides from above and diverges at the surface.
• In addition to convergence, several factors such as eddies, convection currents, orographic
uplift, and uplift along fronts contribute to the upward movement of air, which is crucial for
cloud formation and precipitation.
 Buys-Ballot’s Law
• Meteorological law which states that if you are standing with your back
to the wind in the Northern Hemisphere, low pressure will be on your
left, and high pressure will be on your right.
• In 1857, Buys Ballot formulated a law identifying the relationship
between wind and pressure distribution. The law states that
• Face the true wind and the low-pressure area will be on your right hand
side in the northern hemisphere, left in the southern hemisphere.
• Buys Ballot’s Law should not be applied
• Near the equator: This is because the Coriolis Force is negligible at or
within few degrees of the equator and therefore winds blow directly
across the isobars from HP to LP areas.
• In the vicinity of land: The wind experienced may not be the free
unobstructed wind. It may be wind deflected by the land.
Buys-Ballot’s Law
 Beaufort wind scale
• The Beaufort scale is used to measure the speed of the wind.
It is based on observations rather than actual measurements.
It is widely used to measure wind speed today. There are 12
levels, including 0 for “ no wind” in the wind force scale
introduced by Beaufort
• One of the first scales to estimate wind speeds and the
effects was created by Britain's Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort
(1774-1857). He developed the scale in 1805 to help sailors
estimate the winds via visual observations. The scale starts
with 0 and goes to a force of 12. The Beaufort scale is still
used today to estimate wind strengths.
 Beaufort wind scale
• The Beaufort Scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed
conditions at sea or on land. Its full name is the Beaufort wind force scale.
• Below is a table showing the Beaufort Scale with speeds in knots, miles per hour
and kilometres per hour. Please note that these are mean speeds, usually averaged
over 10 minutes by convention, and do not capture the speed of wind gusts.
• The wind speeds shown in the table below and that you hear quoted in weather or
news reports are always measured at 10 metres above the ground using
meteorological instruments.
• They do not reflect the wind speeds that you would feel on the ground. At 2 metres,
wind speed may be only 50-70% of these figures.
• The specifications are descriptions of likely observations on land or at sea, and the
probable and maximum wave heights (in metres) are quoted for the open sea. The
figure for sea state (on a scale from 0-9) is a shorthand way of describing the sea
surface conditions to various users.
Beaufort wind scale
 Beaufort wind scale
• Force Speed Description Specifications for use at sea
• (mph)(knots) Specifications for use on land
• 0 0-1 0-1 Calm Sea like a mirror.
• Calm; smoke rises vertically.
• 1 1-3 1-3 Light Air Ripples with the appearance of scales are formed, but without foam crests.
• Direction of wind shown by smoke drift, but not by wind vanes.
• 2 4-7 4-6 Light BreezeSmall wavelets, still short, but more pronounced. Crests have a glassy
appearance and do not break.
• Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinary vanes moved by wind.
• 3 8-12 7-10 Gentle Breeze Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam of glassy appearance.
Perhaps scattered white horses.
• Leaves and small twigs in constant motion; wind extends light flag.
• 4 13-18 11-16 Moderate Breeze Small waves, becoming larger; fairly frequent white horses.
• Raises dust and loose paper; small branches are moved.
• 5 19-24 17-21 Fresh Breeze Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced long form; many white
horses are formed.
• Small trees in leaf begin to sway; crested wavelets form on inland waters.
• 6 25-31 22-27 Strong Breeze Large waves begin to form; the white foam crests are more extensive
everywhere.
 Beaufort wind scale
• 7 32-38 28-33 Near Gale Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking waves begins to be blown in
streaks along the direction of the wind.
• Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt when walking against the wind.
• 8 39-46 34-40 Gale Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of crests begin to break into
spindrift. The foam is blown in well-marked streaks along the direction of the wind.
• Breaks twigs off trees; generally impedes progress.
• 9 47-54 41-47 Severe Gale High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the direction of the wind. Crests of
waves begin to topple, tumble and roll over. Spray may affect visibility
• Slight structural damage occurs (chimney-pots and slates removed)
• 10 55-63 48-55 Storm Very high waves with long overhanging crests. The resulting foam, in great patches,
is blown in dense white streaks along the direction of the wind. On the whole the surface of the sea takes on a
white appearance. The tumbling of the sea becomes heavy and shock-like. Visibility affected.
• Seldom experienced inland; trees uprooted; considerable structural damage occurs.
• 11 64-72 56-63 Violent Storm Exceptionally high waves (small and medium-size ships might be for a
time lost to view behind the waves). The sea is completely covered with long white patches of foam lying
along the direction of the wind. Everywhere the edges of the wave crests are blown into froth. Visibility
affected.
• Very rarely experienced; accompanied by wide-spread damage.
• 12 72-83 64-71 Hurricane The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea completely white with driving spray;
visibility very seriously affected.
 Beaufort wind scale-factors, other than the
wind speed, which affect the appearance of
the sea surface
• Factors that affect the appearance of the sea surface
• Wave height: The height of the waves generated by the wind
• Whitecaps: The number of whitecaps on the waves
• Foam: The amount of foam on the waves
• Spray: The amount of spray on the waves
• Foam streaks: The direction in which foam is blown along the water
• Visibility: How well you can see through the foam and spray
• Other factors that affect the sea surface
• Water depth: The depth of the water affects how quickly the wind sets the
water in motion
• Wind duration: How long the wind blows for
• Wind fetch: How far the wind blows
 Apparent and True wind.
• True wind is the wind's actual speed and direction, while apparent
wind is the wind's speed and direction as experienced by an observer
in motion. The wind triangle is a vector diagram that shows the
relationship between the true wind, apparent wind, and the motion
of a ship.
• You can use the wind triangle to derive the remaining quantities when
two of the three vectors, or four of the six components, are known.
• The apparent wind speed is usually greater than the true wind speed
when the true wind comes from a front direction.
• If the ship speed is very high, the apparent wind may meet the ship
from a forward direction even if the true wind comes from abaft.
• You can determine the apparent wind speed and angle by creating the
wind triangle using the ship speed and true wind speed
 Apparent and True wind.
• What is Apparent Wind
• Apparent wind is the wind experienced by a moving object, such as a
ship or a sailboat. It is a combination of the true wind (the wind you
feel when standing still) and the wind created by the object’s own
movement. Understanding apparent wind is crucial for sailors as it
affects how the vessel is navigated. In simple terms, apparent wind is
the wind that “appears” to be blowing from a certain direction when
you’re in motion, and it plays a key role in optimizing sailing
performance.
• What is True Wind
• True wind is the wind that blows across the land or sea when you’re
stationary. It’s the natural wind direction and speed, unaffected by
your movement.
 Difference between True and Apparent Wind

Aspect True Wind Apparent Wind

Wind experienced by a moving
Definition Wind felt by a stationary observer.
object.

Natural wind blowing over the Combination of true wind and wind
Source land/sea. from movement.

Consistent and based on natural Changes based on the object’s

Direction conditions. movement.

Remains constant in a stationary Varies with the speed and direction

Speed context. of the object.

Importance for Used to determine initial sail Critical for adjusting sails during
Sailing settings. movement.
 Wind rose
• A wind rose diagram is a circular chart that shows the direction and
speed of winds at a specific location over a set period of time. The
diagram uses spokes to indicate the frequency of winds blowing from
different directions, and colours to indicate wind speed categories:
• Spokes -The length of each spoke indicates how often the wind blows
from that direction.
• Colours - Different colours along the spokes indicate different wind
speed categories.
• Concentric circles - Each concentric circle represents a different
frequency, with zero at the centre and increasing frequencies at the
outer circles.
• Centre circle -The size of the centre circle represents the percentage of
calm conditions. A larger circle indicates more frequent calm conditions
Wind rose
 Wind rose
• The wind rose located in the top right corner of each data map shows
the general wind direction and speed for each sampling period. The
circular format of the wind rose shows the direction the winds blew
from and the length of each "spoke" around the circle shows how
often the wind blew from that direction. For example, the wind rose
above shows that during this particular sampling period the wind
blew from the west 30% of the time, and from the north and the
northeast 12% of the time, etc.
• The different colours of each spoke provide details on the speed, in
knots (1 knot=1.15 mph), of the wind from each direction. Using the
example above, the longest spoke shows the wind blew from the west
at speeds between 1-4 knots (light blue) about 4% of the time, 4-7
knots (dark green) about 18% of the time and 7-11 knots (dark blue)
about 7% of the time.
 Wind rose
• The wind rose is the time honoured method of graphically presenting
the wind conditions, direction and speed, over a period of time at a
specific location. To create a wind rose, average wind direction and
wind speed values are logged at a site, at short intervals, over a
period of time, e.g. 1 week, 1 month, or longer. The collected wind
data is then sorted by wind direction so that the percentage of time
that the wind was blowing from each direction can be determined.
• Typically the wind direction data is sorted into twelve equal arc
segments, 30° each segment, in preparation for plotting a circular
graph in which the radius of each of the twelve segments represents
the percentage of time that the wind blew from each of the twelve
30° direction segments. Wind speed data can be superimposed on
each direction segment to indicate, for example, the average wind
speed when the wind was blowing from that segment's direction and
the maximum wind speed during the logging period.
 Wind and Pressure systems over the
oceans
• General Atmospheric Circulation
• The pattern of planetary winds mainly depends on-
• Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating
• Emergence of pressure belts
• The movement of belts follows the apparent path of the sun
• The distribution of continents and oceans
• The rotation of the earth.
• The movement of the planetary winds is known as the general
atmospheric circulation. This atmospheric circulation also affects the
movement of ocean water, which in turn has an impact on the Earth’s
climate. The given below figure provides a description of the general
atmospheric circulation.
 Mean surface pressure and wind distribution over the earth’s surface

• Distributions of pressure on a map are depicted by a series of curved

lines called isobars, each of which connects points of equal pressure.
At sea level the mean pressure is about 1,000 mb (100 kPa), varying
by less than 5 percent from this value at any given location or time
• Pressure Belts of Earth. On the earth's surface, there are seven
pressure belts. They are the Equatorial Low, the two Subtropical
highs, the two Subpolar lows, and the two Polar highs. Except for the
Equatorial low, the others form matching pairs in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres
• The mean sea level pressure on Earth is 1013.25 millibars. The
distribution of pressure and wind over the Earth's surface is affected
by a number of factors, including the amount of solar radiation, the
Earth's rotation, and altitude.
Mean surface pressure and wind distribution
over the earth’s surface
• Pressure belts
• Equatorial Low: A low-pressure belt near the equator where hot air rises
• Subtropical Highs: High-pressure areas located at around 30° N and 30° S
latitude
• Sub Polar Lows: Low-pressure belts located at around 60° N and 60° S
latitude
• Polar Highs: High-pressure regions near the poles
• Wind patterns
• Trade winds: Winds that blow from the subtropical regions towards the
equator
• Westerlies: Winds that blow from the subtropical regions towards the sub-
polar low-pressure regions
• Roaring Forties: A band of strong westerly winds in the middle latitudes,
between 40 and 50 degrees latitude south of the equator
 Characteristics and location of the doldrums
• The doldrums, or ITCZ, are located roughly at the Equator, but they also migrate with
the seasons. They are 50 to 250 miles wide, so the rain produced by the rising air is
significant. In the Northern Hemisphere's summer, the doldrums migrate as far as 25
degrees north latitude up to southern Asia.
• Characteristics
• Little wind: The doldrums are characterized by little or no wind.
• Low atmospheric pressure: The doldrums are characterized by low atmospheric
pressure.
• Cloudy and rainy weather: The doldrums are characterized by cloudy and rainy
weather.
• Intense solar heating: The doldrums are characterized by intense solar heating.
• Upward circulation of air: The doldrums are characterized by upward circulation of air.
• Location- The doldrums are located near the equator, extending about five degrees
north and south.
• The doldrums occur in the Indian and western Pacific oceans, and slightly north of the
equator off the African and Central American west coasts
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
• The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is a belt of low pressure
which circles the Earth generally near the equator where the trade winds .
• The intertropical convergence zone is a belt of converging trade winds and
rising air that encircles Earth's lower atmosphere near the Equator
• The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) appears as a band of clouds
consisting of showers and occasional thunderstorms that encircles the
globe near the equator. The solid band of clouds may extend for many
hundreds of miles and is sometimes broken into smaller line segments
• The area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It
encircles Earth near the thermal equator though its specific position varies
seasonally.
• The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low-latitude region
characterized by warm air masses and convectional rainfall
Characteristics and location of the intertropical
convergence zone.
• The air in the atmospheric Circulation at the Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) rises due to convection caused by high solar radiation, leading
to the formation of a low pressure area. The winds from the tropics
converge at this zone of low pressure. As the converged air rises, it forms a
convective cell and reaches the top of the troposphere, reaching an
altitude of approximately 14 km.
• From there, it moves towards the poles, resulting in the accumulation of
air around 30-degree N and S latitudes. Some of the accumulated air
descends towards the Earth’s surface, creating a subtropical high.
• Another reason for the air to sink is the cooling that occurs when it reaches
latitudes of 30-degree N and S. Near the surface, the air flows towards the
equator as easterlies. The easterlies from both sides of the equator
converge at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
• These atmospheric circulations, from the surface upwards and vice versa,
are known as cells. In the tropics, this type of cell is called the Hadley Cell.
 Characteristics and location of the
intertropical convergence zone
• In the middle latitudes, the atmospheric circulation consists of sinking cold air
from the poles and rising warm air from the subtropical high. These winds at the
surface are referred to as westerlies, and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell.
• At polar latitudes, the cold and dense air descends near the poles and moves
towards the middle latitudes as polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell.
These three cells establish the general pattern of atmospheric circulation.
• The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes plays a
crucial role in maintaining this overall atmospheric circulation.
• The atmosphere’s general circulation also has an impact on the oceans. The
large-scale winds in the atmosphere create slow-moving currents in the ocean.
• Conversely, the oceans contribute energy and water vapour to the air. These
interactions occur gradually across a significant portion of the ocean.
 Characteristics and location of the trade winds
• The trade winds are air currents closer to Earth's surface that blow from east to west
near the equator. The trade winds have been used by sailors for centuries. Sailors
traveling from Europe or Africa used the trade winds to travel to North or South
America.
• The limits of the trade winds and the inter-tropical convergence zone move north and
south, changing both their size and position in latitude
• Trade winds are the type of winds that flow in the equatorial region of the Earth. The
direction in which it blows is in the Northern hemisphere as the trades of the
northeast and in the Southern hemisphere as the trades of the southeast. It is
strongest during the winter season and the warm phase of Northern Annular mode. It
plays a vital role in sailing ships and boats. They are also very important in
meteorology which is the science of the atmosphere and the phenomena related to it
which are weather and climate in general. The image shown below depicts the trade
wind.
• There are two primary types of trade winds: the Northeast Trade Winds and the
Southeast Trade Winds. These names indicate the direction from which the winds
come in each hemisphere.
 Formation of Trade Winds

• Trade winds are formed when the hot air rises upward and hits the equator part of
the Earth where it gets pulled towards the North and the South pole converting
them into chilling air. Then this air again gets sunk towards the surface of the Earth
near the horse latitudes. Then again the cycle repeats itself by triggering the
calmness in it as well as promoting precipitation. While being on the equator it
creates a belt which has the following properties:
• It is a 60° belt.
• Belt is from east to west.
• It is on both sides of the equator.
• It can also be found about 30° South and North of the equator.
• The main causes of the trade winds are high pressure along with the Coriolis Effect.
The pressure makes the trade wind blow from the region of high pressure to the
region of low pressure. Then the trade wind gets distributed into two belts along
the equator part of the Earth due to the high pressure that starts to build up on it.
This then moves it to the north and the south poles which then makes it cooler.
 Subtropical oceanic highs, westerlies and polar easterlies
• As the air moves towards the subtropics, it descends over the oceans and creates
semi-permanent circulation features called subtropical highs. In the Northern
Hemisphere, these high pressure systems are located over the North Pacific and
North Atlantic oceans
• Subtropical high, one of several regions of semipermanent high atmospheric
pressure located over the oceans between 20° and 40° of latitude in both the
Northern and Southern hemispheres of the Earth. These highs are associated with
the subsidence of the Hadley cell and move several degrees of latitude toward the
poles in the summer. The circulation around the highs is clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
• In both hemispheres, subsidence is greater on the eastern sides of the highs. The
subsiding air warms by compression and, coupled with cooling of the lowest layers
overlying the cold ocean currents normally found off the west coasts of the
continents, forms a pronounced temperature inversion (warm air over cold), called
the trade-wind inversion. The inversion acts as a barrier to vertical convection and is
largely responsible for the aridity and high frequency of fog found along the west
coasts of the subtropical continents, especially in summer
 Subtropical oceanic highs, westerlies and polar
easterlies
• Subtropical high pressure belts, westerlies, and polar easterlies are all part of the Earth's atmospheric
circulation
• Subtropical high pressure belts
• Located at around 30° N/S latitude
• Associated with the subsidence of the Hadley cell
• Can cause aridity and fog along the west coasts of subtropical continents
• Move towards the poles in the summer
• Westerlies
• Blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards sub-polar low-pressure belts
• Found between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the Equator
• Are dry winds
• The westerlies of the Southern hemisphere are stronger than those in the Northern hemisphere
• Polar easterlies
• Blow from the polar highs at the North and South Poles towards the low-pressure areas within the westerlies
• Are very cold and dry winds
• Flow from the east to the west
• Are also known as Polar Hadley cells
 Subtropical oceanic highs, westerlies and polar easterlies

• The westerlies, anti-trades, or prevailing westerlies, are prevailing winds

from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between 30 and
60 degrees latitude
• Westerlies are the Permanent winds that blow in the middle latitudes.
They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards sub-polar
low-pressure belts. The westerlies of the Southern hemisphere are more
robust and constant than the westerlies of the Northern hemisphere.
• Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the east.
They emanate from the polar highs, areas of high pressure around the
North and South Poles. Polar easterlies flow to low-pressure areas in sub-
polar regions. Westerlies. Westerlies are prevailing winds that blow from
the west at midlatitudes
• Types of Wind - Planetary, Trade, Westerlies, Periodic & Local Winds
 Land and sea breezes
• Land and sea breezes are both caused by differences in how the land and water
are heated or cooled:
• Land breeze: A wind that blows from land to water, usually at night. Land breezes
are most common in the fall and winter when the water is still warm but the
nights are cool.
• Sea breeze: A wind that blows from water to land, usually during the day.
• characteristics of land and sea breezes:
• Strength: Land breezes are usually weaker than sea breezes.
• Depth: Land breezes are shallower than sea breezes.
• Speed: Land breezes typically blow at 5 to 8 knots, while sea breezes blow at 10 to
20 knots.
• Moisture: Sea breezes contain more moisture than land breezes because they
absorb particles from the water.
• Temperature: Land breezes don't usually change the temperature, but sea breezes
can lower the air temperature.
 Land and sea breezes
• A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of water
toward or onto a landmass. By contrast, a land breeze or offshore breeze is any
wind that blows from a landmass toward or onto a large body of water. Sea breezes
and land breezes are both important factors in coastal regions' prevailing winds.
• Sea breeze and land breeze develop due to differences in air pressure created by
the differing heat capacities of water and dry land. As such, sea breezes and land
breezes are more localised than prevailing winds. Since land heats up much faster
than water under solar radiation, a sea breeze is a common occurrence along
coasts after sunrise. On the other hand, dry land also cools faster than water
without solar radiation, so the wind instead flows from the land towards the sea
when the sea breeze dissipates after sunset.
• The land breeze at nighttime is usually shallower than the sea breeze in daytime.
Unlike the daytime sea breeze, which is driven by convection, the nighttime land
breeze is driven by convergence
• The term offshore wind refers to any wind over open water, which is related to but
not synonymous with offshore breeze
 Land and sea breezes
• The sea has a greater heat capacity than land, so the surface of the sea warms up
more slowly than the surface of the land. As the temperature of the surface of the
land rises, the land heats the air above it by convection. The hypsometric
equation states that the hydrostatic pressure depends on the temperature. Thus,
the hydrostatic pressure over the land decreases less at higher altitude. As the air
above the coast has a relatively higher pressure, it starts moving towards the sea
at high altitude. This creates an inverse airflow near the ground. The strength of
the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the
land and the sea. If a strong offshore wind is present (that is, a wind greater than
8 knots (15 km/h)) and opposing the direction of a possible sea breeze, the sea
breeze is not likely to develop.
• Land breeze- At night, the land cools off faster than the ocean due to differences
in their heat capacity, which forces the dying of the daytime sea breeze as the
temperature of the land approaches that of the ocean. If the land becomes cooler
than the adjacent sea surface temperature, the air pressure over the water will be
lower than that of the land, setting up a land breeze blowing from the land to the
sea, as long as the environmental surface wind pattern is not strong enough to
oppose it.
 Anabatic and katabatic winds
• Anabatic and katabatic winds are both local winds that occur due to
thermal processes:
• Anabatic winds- These upslope winds are caused by warmer surface
temperatures on a mountain slope than the surrounding air. They are
more pronounced in the summer and can flow further than the
orographic tops. Anabatic winds are usually slow, at only 1-2m/s.
• Katabatic winds- These downslope winds are caused by colder air
flowing downwards along the orographic slope. They are nocturnal
phenomena in most parts of the world, but can occur at any time of
day or night if the ground is covered with snow or ice. Katabatic wind
speeds do not typically exceed 3 or 4 m/s. Katabatic winds can
lead to the formation of frost, mist, and fog in valleys
 Anabatic and katabatic winds
• katabatic wind, wind that blows down a slope because of gravity. It
occurs at night, when the highlands radiate heat and are cooled. The
air in contact with these highlands is thus also cooled, and it becomes
denser than the air at the same elevation but away from the slope; it
therefore begins to flow downhill. This process is most pronounced in
calm air because winds mix the air and prevent cold pockets from
forming.
• Anabatic wind, local air current that blows up a hill or mountain slope
facing the Sun. During the day, the Sun heats such a slope (and the air
over it) faster than it does the adjacent atmosphere over a valley or a
plain at the same altitude. This warming decreases the density of the
air, causing it to rise. More air rises from below to replace it,
producing a wind. An anabatic wind often attains a velocity of 3–5
metres per second (7–11 miles per hour).
 Anabatic and katabatic winds
• Examples of katabatic winds
• Bora: A katabatic wind that flows from the Balkan Plateau into the Adriatic
• Foehn winds: A type of katabatic wind that descends adiabatically,
meaning there is no heat transfer
• Santa Ana winds: A mountain gap wind that occurs in southern California
• Piteraq winds: A katabatic wind that occurs in Greenland
• Bohemian Wind: A katabatic wind that occurs in the Ore Mountains
• Oroshi: A katabatic wind that occurs in Japan
• The Barber: A katabatic wind that occurs in New Zealand
• Valley Breezes in the mountainous regions of the Alps, Rockies, and
Andes are common examples of Anabatic winds
 Examples of local winds
• Local wind: These are the winds that are formed due to local differences in
the pressure and the temperature of the surroundings.
• There are numerous local winds throughout the world. The local winds of the
world are formed due to different heating rates of the land. Local winds
typically develop on a very small scale. All local winds share the trait of being
transitory, lasting only a few hours on average per day. Everywhere in the
world, there are various local winds. These winds come in a variety of
temperatures. Some winds are dry, while others are hot and cold
• Harmattan: A hot, dry wind that blows in West Africa
• Bora: A cold, dry wind that blows from Hungary to North Italy
• Mistral: A cold wind that blows in the Alps and France
• Punas: A cold, dry wind that blows in the western side of the Andes Mountain
• Karaburan: A katabatic wind that blows in Central Asia during spring and
winter
 Monsoons of the Indian Ocean, China Sea, north coast of Australia, west
coast of Africa and the north-east coast of Brazil

• The Indian Ocean, China Sea, north coast of Australia, west coast of
Africa, and northeast coast of Brazil experience monsoons. Monsoons are
large-scale wind systems that bring heavy rain and can lead to vegetation
growth
• A monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by
corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe
seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated
with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) between its limits to the north and south of the equator. Usually,
the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally
changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term
is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but short-term rains.
• The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African,
Asian–Australian, the North American, and South American monsoons
Monsoons of the Indian Ocean, China Sea, north
coast of Australia, west coast of Africa and the
north-east coast of Brazil
• Indian monsoon, the most prominent of the world's monsoon
systems, which primarily affects India and its surrounding water
bodies. It blows from the northeast during cooler months and
reverses direction to blow from the southwest during the warmest
months of the year
• A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or
strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons
throughout much of the tropics. Monsoons are most often associated
with the Indian Ocean.
• Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions. The summer
monsoon and the winter monsoon determine the climate for most of
India and Southeast Asia.
 Monsoons of the Indian Ocean, China Sea
• Summer Monsoon- The summer monsoon is associated with heavy rainfall. It usually
happens between April and September. As winter ends, warm, moist air from the
southwest Indian Ocean blows toward countries like India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and
Myanmar. The summer monsoon brings a humid climate and torrential rainfall to these
areas.
• India and Southeast Asia depend on the summer monsoon. Agriculture, for example,
relies on the yearly rain. Many areas in these countries do not have large irrigation
systems surrounding lakes, rivers, or snowmelt areas. Aquifers, or supplies of
underground water, are shallow. The summer monsoon fills wells and aquifers for the rest
of the year. Rice and tea are some crops that rely on the summer monsoon. Dairy farms,
which help make India the largest milk producer in the world, also depend on the
monsoon rains to keep cows healthy and well-fed.
• The Indian Oceans winter monsoon, which lasts from October to April, is less well-known
than its rainy summer equivalent. The dry winter monsoon blows from the northeast.
These winds start in the air above Mongolia and northwestern China.
• Winter monsoons are less powerful than summer monsoons in Southeast Asia, in part
because the Himalaya Mountains prevent much of the wind and moisture of the
monsoons from reaching the coast. The Himalayas also prevent much of the cool air from
reaching places like southern India and Sri Lanka, keeping them warm all year. Winter
 Monsoons of the Indian Ocean, China Sea
• The East Asian monsoon is a monsoonal flow that carries moist air
from the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean to East Asia
• The South China Sea has a predominately tropical climate, dictated by
two monsoons that are characterised by their direction of airflow. The
Northeast monsoon is active in the winter months of November to
March, while during the summer between May and September the
Southwest monsoon is active
• The monsoon season brings heavy rain between May and September,
while tropical cyclones and typhoons often make landfall, bringing
destructive winds and flooding rain. Typhoon activity peaks between
July-October. Humidity in the summer is extreme, and can be
oppressive.
 Monsoons of the north coast of Australia,
west coast of Africa
• The Australian monsoon (AUM), also known as the Australian summer
monsoon (ASM), and the Australian-Indonesian monsoon (AIM),is a monsoon
system that increases thunderstorms and rainfall over many areas of
Indonesia and northern Australia, from the far northern tropics of the region
to the semi-arid zone of Australia, typically between November and mid-
March, which is the wet season of many parts of northern Australia and
Indonesia.
• The north is famous for its wet season, which runs from November to April,
when the vast majority of the region's rain falls.
• West African monsoon, a major wind system that affects West African regions
between latitudes 9° and 20° N and is characterized by winds that blow south
westerly during warmer months and northeasterly during cooler months of
the year. Although areas just outside of this region also experience wind
reversals, the influence of the monsoon declines with increasing distance
 Monsoons of the north-east coast of Brazil
• The northeast coast of Brazil (ENEB) experiences a wet season from
February to May, but the rainfall is highly variable. The region is also
known as the "drought polygon" because of its vulnerability to
droughts
• Typically, early October marks the beginning of monsoon season in
tropical Brazil. For the country's austral summer (December to
February), the Amazon Basin receives a significant increase of
precipitation
• Brazil gets rainfall from the South-East and North-east Trade Winds.
 Clouds Formation
• Clouds are visible accumulations of tiny water droplets or ice crystals in Earth’s
atmosphere.
• Clouds differ greatly in size, shape, and colour. They can appear thin and wispy,
or bulky and lumpy.
• Clouds usually appear white because the tiny water droplets inside them are
tightly packed, reflecting most of the sunlight that hits them. White is how our
eyes perceive all wavelengths of sunlight mixed together. When it’s about to
rain, clouds darken because the water vapor is clumping together into
raindrops, leaving larger spaces between drops of water. Less light is reflected.
The rain cloud appears black or gray.
• Clouds form when air becomes saturated, or filled, with water vapor. Warm air
can hold more water vapor than cold air, so lowering the temperature of an air
mass is like squeezing a sponge. Clouds are the visible result of that squeeze of
cooler, moist air. Moist air becomes cloudy with only slight cooling. With
further cooling, the water or ice particles that make up the cloud can grow into
bigger particles that fall to Earth as precipitation.
 Clouds Formation
• The air can only hold a certain amount of water vapor, depending on the
temperature and weight of the air – or atmospheric pressure – in a given
area. The higher the temperature or atmospheric pressure, the more water
vapor the air can hold. When a certain volume of air is holding all the water
vapor it can hold, it is said to be “saturated.”
• What happens if a saturated volume of air cools or the atmospheric pressure
drops? The air is no longer able to hold all that water vapor. The excess
amount changes from a gas into a liquid or solid (ice). The process of water
changing from a gas to a liquid is called "condensation," and when gas
changes directly into a solid, it is called "deposition." These two processes
are how clouds form.
• Condensation happens with the help of tiny particles floating around in the
air, such as dust, salt crystals from sea spray, bacteria or even ash from
volcanoes. Those particles provide surfaces on which water vapor can
change into liquid droplets or ice crystals.
• A large accumulation of such droplets or ice crystals is a cloud
 Clouds Formation
• Clouds form in four main ways:
• Condensation: Water vapor turns into water droplets, which are the building blocks of
clouds.
• Convergence: When surface air currents move towards each other, it can cause air to
rise.
• Convection: This is one of four ways that air can rise in the atmosphere.
• Frontal lifting: This is one of four ways that air can rise in the atmosphere

• Ingredients needed for clouds formation.

• Water in the atmosphere.
• Saturation, relative humidity, dew point.
• Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN)
• Adiabatic cooling and buoyancy.
• Lightning.
 Clouds Formation
• Clouds are formed when air contains as much water vapor (gas) as it
can hold. This is called the saturation point, and it can be reached in
two ways. First, moisture accumulates until it reaches the maximum
amount the volume of air can hold. The other method reduces the
temperature of the moisture filled air, which in turn lowers the
amount of moisture it can contain. Saturation, therefore, is reached
through evaporation and condensation, respectively. When saturation
occurs, moisture becomes visible water droplets in the form of fog
and clouds.
• There are four main processes occurring at or near the earth's surface
which give can rise to ascending air: convergence, convection, frontal
lifting and physical lifting.
 Clouds Formation
• Convergence occurs when several surface air currents in the
horizontal flow move toward each other to meet in a common space.
When they converge, there is only one way to go: Up. A surface low
pressure cell is an example of an area of convergence and air at its
centre must rise as a result.
• Convection occurs when air is heated from below by sunlight or by
contact with a warmer land or water surface until it becomes less
dense than the air above it. The heated parcel of air will rise until it
has again cooled to the temperature of the surrounding air.
 Clouds Formation
• Convection occurs when air is heated from below by sunlight or by
contact with a warmer land or water surface until it becomes less
dense than the air above it. The heated parcel of air will rise until it has
again cooled to the temperature of the surrounding air.
• Frontal lifting occurs when a warmer air mass meets a colder one.
Since warm air is less dense than cold, a warm air mass approaching a
cold one will ascend over the cold air. This forms a warm front. When a
cold air mass approaches a warm one, it wedges under the warmer air,
lifting it above the ground. This forms a cold front. In either case, there
is ascending air at the frontal boundary.
• Physical lifting, also known as orographic lifting, occurs when
horizontal winds are forced to rise in order to cross topographical
barriers such as hills and mountains.
 Condensation nuclei
• Condensation nuclei are tiny particles in the atmosphere that water
vapor condenses onto to form clouds, fog, and haze: Cloud
condensation nuclei (CCNs), also known as cloud seeds, are small
particles typically 0.2 μm, or one hundredth the size of a cloud droplet
• Definition- Condensation nuclei are solid and liquid particles that are
about 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet.
• Examples- Examples of condensation nuclei include dust, soot, vehicle
exhaust, smoke from fires or volcanoes, ocean spray, and wind-blown
soil.
• Formation - Condensation nuclei are formed when activities stir up
small materials into the atmosphere.
• Role -Condensation nuclei provide a surface for water vapor to
condense onto, which is necessary for clouds to form
 Cloud can consist of ice crystals, super cooled water
droplets, water droplets or any combination of these
• Clouds can be made up of water droplets, ice crystals, or a
combination of the two, including supercooled water droplets. The
composition of a cloud depends on the altitude, temperature, and
season
• Between -15°C and -40°C most clouds contain a mixture of ice crystals
and supercooled water droplets. Below -40°C almost all clouds consist
entirely of ice crystals, with the notable exception of Cumulonimbus
(Cb) clouds, in particular the “anvil clouds”
• In cold clouds ice crystals and water droplets exist side by side. Due to
an imbalance of water vapor pressure, the water droplets transfer to
the ice crystals
• Like altostratus, altocumulus are composed of a mixture of water
droplets, supercooled water droplets, and ice crystal
 Basic cloud types
• Types of Clouds
• Because certain types of clouds are associated with certain types of
weather, it is possible to forecast the weather by observing and
understanding these different types of clouds.
• Clouds are classified into three main groups: cirrus, stratus, and
cumulus.
• Clouds are classified according to their height above and appearance
(texture) from the ground. The following cloud roots and translations
summarize the components of this classification system:
• 1) Cirro-: curl of hair, high; 2) Alto-: mid; 3) Strato-: layer; 4) Nimbo-:
rain, precipitation
 Ten principal cloud types
• The ten main types of clouds are:
• Cirrus: High-level clouds that look like wispy, white filaments
• Cirrocumulus: High-level clouds that look like thin, sheet-like clouds with ripples or
small grains
• Cirrostratus: High-level clouds
• Altostratus: High-level clouds
• Altocumulus: High-level clouds
• Stratocumulus: Low-level clouds that look like puffy, grayish or whitish patches
• Nimbostratus: Low-level clouds that look dark and gray, and are associated with
steady rain or snow
• Cumulus: Low-level clouds that look like rounded, puffy clouds with flat bottoms
• Stratus: Low-level clouds that look like a flat, featureless layer of grayish cloud
• Cumulonimbus: High-level clouds that look dark gray to nearly black with flat bases
and very high tops
 Base heights of the ten principal
cloud types
• 1. Cirrus clouds are wispy, curly, or stringy. They are found high in the
atmosphere—typically higher than 6,000 meters (20,000 feet)—and are usually
made of ice crystals. Cirrus clouds usually signal clear, fair weather. Their shape
often indicates the direction the wind is blowing high in the atmosphere.
• High-Level Clouds
• Cirrus (Ci), cirrocumulus (Cc), and cirrostratus (Cs) are high level clouds. They
are typically thin and white in appearance, but can appear in a magnificent
array of colours when the sun is low on the horizon.
• 2. Stratus clouds are horizontal and stratified, or layered. Stratus clouds can
blanket the entire sky in a single pattern. They usually occur close to Earth.
Stratus clouds often form at the boundary of a warm front, where warm, moist
air is forced up over cold air. This movement produces clouds as the moist air is
cooled across the entire front. The presence of stratus clouds usually means a
chilly, overcast day. If precipitation falls from stratus clouds, it is usually in the
form of drizzle or light snow.
 Mid-Level Clouds

• Altocumulus (Ac), altostratus (As), and nimbostratus (Ns) are mid-level

clouds composed primarily of water droplets. However, they can be
composed of ice crystals when temperatures are low enough.
• In Latin, alto means 'high' yet altostratus and altocumulus clouds are
classified as mid-level clouds. 'Alto' is used to distinguish these "higher-
level" clouds from their low-level liquid-based counterpart clouds, stratus
and cumulus.
• 3. Cumulus clouds are large and lumpy. Their name comes from the Latin
word meaning "heap" or "pile." They can stretch vertically into the
atmosphere up to 12,000 meters (39,000 feet) high. Cumulus clouds are
created by strong updrafts of warm, moist air. Most forms of heavy
precipitation fall from cumulus clouds. The weather they bring depends
on their height and size. The higher the base of a cloud is, the drier the
atmosphere and the fairer the weather will be. Clouds located close to
the ground mean heavy snow or rain
 Low-Level Clouds

• Low-Level Clouds
• Cumulus (Cu), stratocumulus (Sc), stratus (St), and cumulonimbus (Cb) are low
clouds composed of water droplets. Cumulonimbus, with its strong vertical
updraft, extends well into the high level of clouds
• Variations
• Clouds are also classified according to how high they are in the atmosphere and
what kind of weather they produce.
• While clouds appear in infinite shapes and sizes, they fall into some basic forms.
clouds into three categories: cirrus, cumulus, and stratus, plus a fourth special
type, nimbus. The Latin word "cirro" means curl of hair.
• Cumulus - heaped or in a pile
• Stratus - in a sheet or layer
• Cirrus - thread-like, hairy or curled
• Nimbus - a rain bearer
 Clouds
• 1. The prefix "cirro-" refers to clouds that lie more than 6,000 meters
(20,000 feet) above the Earth. Cirrocumulus and cirrostratus clouds
are two examples of these “high-level” clouds.
• 2. The prefix "alto-" indicates clouds whose bases are between 2,000
and 6,000 meters (6,500-20,000 feet) above Earth, such as
altocumulus and altostratus clouds. They are considered "mid-level"
clouds and are mostly made of liquid water droplets, but can have
some ice crystals in cold enough temperatures.
• 3. The prefix "nimbo-" or the suffix "-nimbus" are low-level clouds
that have their bases below 2,000 meters (6,500 feet) above Earth.
Clouds that produce rain and snow fall into this category. ("Nimbus"
comes from the Latin word for "rain.") Two examples are the
nimbostratus or cumulonimbus clouds
 Clouds and Weather

• 4. Nimbostratus clouds bring continuous precipitation that can last for

many hours. These low-level clouds are full of moisture.
• Cumulonimbus clouds are also called thunderheads. Thunderheads
produce rain, thunder, and lightning. Many cumulonimbus clouds occur
along cold fronts, where cool air is forced under warm air. They usually
shrink as evening approaches, and moisture in the air evaporates.
Cumulonimbus clouds gradually become stratocumulus clouds, which
rarely produce rain.
• Clouds and Weather
• Certain types of clouds produce precipitation. Clouds also produce the bolt
of electricity called lightning and the sound of thunder that accompanies
it. Lightning is formed in a cloud when positively charged particles and
negatively charged particles are separated, forming an electrical field.
When the electrical field is strong enough, it discharges a superheated bolt
of lightning to Earth. Most of what we consider to be single lightning
strikes are in fact three or four separate strokes of lightning.
 Clouds and Weather
• The sound of thunder is actually the sonic shock wave that comes
when the air, heated by the lightning bolt, expands very rapidly.
Thunder sometimes sounds like it comes in waves because of the
time it takes the sound to travel. Because the speed of light is faster
than the speed of sound, lightning will always appear before its
thunder is heard.
• Meteorologists measure cloud cover, or the amount of the visible sky
covered by clouds, in units called oktas. An okta estimates how many
eighths of the sky (octo-) is covered in clouds. A clear sky is zero oktas,
while a totally overcast or gray sky is eight oktas.
 ‘Precipitation’, ‘rain’, ‘drizzle’, ‘hail’, ‘snow’ and ‘sleet
• Precipitation, all liquid and solid water particles that fall from clouds and reach the
ground. These particles include drizzle, rain, snow, snow pellets, ice crystals, and
hail.
• In meteorology, the different types of precipitation often include the character,
formation, or phase of the precipitation which is falling to ground level. There are
three distinct ways that precipitation can occur. Convective precipitation is
generally more intense, and of shorter duration, than stratiform precipitation.
Orographic precipitation occurs when moist air is forced upwards over rising terrain
and condenses on the slope, such as a mountain.
• Precipitation can fall in either liquid or solid phases, is mixed with both, or
transition between them at the freezing level. Liquid forms of precipitation include
rain and drizzle and dew. Rain or drizzle which freezes on contact with a surface
within a subfreezing air mass gains the preceding adjective "freezing", becoming
the known freezing rain or freezing drizzle. Slush is a mixture of both liquid and
solid precipitation. Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice crystals, ice
pellets (sleet), hail, and graupel. Their respective intensities are classified either by
rate of precipitation, or by visibility restriction
 ‘Precipitation’, ‘rain’, ‘drizzle’, ‘hail’,
‘snow’ and ‘sleet
• Precipitation is part of the water cycle. Precipitation falls to the ground as snow and rain. It
eventually evaporates and rises back into the atmosphere as a gas. In clouds, it turns back
into liquid or solid water, and it falls to Earth again. People rely on precipitation for
freshwater to drink, bathe, and irrigate crops for food.
• The most common types of precipitation are rain, hail, and snow.
• Rain- Rain is precipitation that falls to the surface of Earth as water droplets. Raindrops form
around microscopic cloud condensation nuclei, such as a particle of dust or a molecule of
pollution. Rain that falls from clouds but freezes before it reaches the ground is called sleet
or ice pellets. Even though cartoon pictures of raindrops look like tears, real raindrops are
actually spherical.
• Hail- Hail forms in cold storm clouds. It forms when very cold water droplets freeze, or turn
solid, as soon as they touch things like dust or dirt. The storm blows the hailstones into the
upper part of the cloud. More frozen water droplets are added to the hailstone before it falls.
Unlike sleet, which is liquid when it forms and freezes as it falls to Earth, hail falls as a stone
of solid ice. Hailstones are usually the size of small rocks, but they can get as large as 15
centimetres (six inches) across and weigh more than a pound.
Precipitation’, ‘rain’, ‘drizzle’, ‘hail’, ‘snow’ and ‘sleet
• Snow is precipitation that falls in the form of ice crystals. Hail is also ice, but hailstones are
just collections of frozen water droplets. Snow has a complex structure. The ice crystals
are formed individually in clouds, but when they fall, they stick together in clusters of
snowflakes. Snowfall happens when many individual snowflakes fall from the clouds.
Unlike a hail storm, snowfall is usually calm. Hailstones are hard, while snowflakes are
soft. Snowflakes develop different patterns, depending on the temperature and humidity
of the air. When snow falls in the form of a ball instead of soft flakes, it is called graupel.
This happens when snow is melted and precipitation forms around the snow crystal. Snow
requires temperatures at the ground to be near or below freezing—less than 0-degrees
Celsius . Snow that falls on warmer ground melts on contact.
• Other Types of Precipitation
• Sometimes, different types of precipitation fall at the same time. During harsh winter
storms, for instance, it is not unusual for sleet and rain to fall at the same time.
• Other times, precipitation doesn't fall at all. Virga is a type of precipitation that begins to
fall from a cloud, but evaporates before it reaches the surface of Earth.
• Human activity can create precipitation. Urban heat islands, which are areas around major
cities that are much warmer than their surroundings, lead to increased and more intense
 Dew
• Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin, exposed objects
in the morning or evening due to condensation. As the exposed surface
cools by radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate
greater than that at which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of
water droplets.
• The dew point is the temperature at which air must be cooled to reach a
relative humidity of 100%
• Dew point vs. humidity: Which one is a better measure of how ...Dew
point and visibility are related because a large difference between the dew
point and the actual temperature can indicate low visibility, such as fog
• When observing successive weather reports (METARs), a reducing gap
between the actual temperature and the Dew Point temperature gives an
indication of impending low visibility conditions and the possibility of fog
 Visibility is reduced by the presence of
particles in the atmosphere, near the earth’s
surface
• Visibility and define ‘fog’, ‘mist’ and haze
is a measure of how far away an object or light can be clearly seen. It can be
affected by a number of factors.
• Visibility is defined to be the maximum distance at which a ship or object of
considerable size can be seen in daylight at sea as governed by the amount of haze in
the atmosphere.
• Visibility may be defined as the maximum distance at which an object can be seen
with its details recognized in normal daylight. To a mariner the horizontal visibility at
sea is important especially when the ship is underway in order to avoid accidents. In
good visibility your view is unobstructed up to horizon.
• In terms of analysis of factors influencing the visibility, many studies have shown that
atmospheric visibility is closely related to meteorological conditions such as humidity
and wind speed and weather phenomena such as fog, precipitation and dust
• Ship visibility can be affected by weather conditions, such as fog, rain, or darkness. In
these situations, ships may need to take additional precautions, such as reducing
speed, sounding fog signals, or using radar and other electronic aids to navigation
 Visibility is reduced by the presence of
particles in the atmosphere, near the earth’s
surface and define ‘fog’, ‘mist’ and haze
• The term ‘restricted visibility’ means any condition in which visibility is restricted by
fog, mist, falling snow, heavy rain- storms, sandstorms or any other similar causes.
• Obstruction to Visibility are caused by the following: Meteorology and
Oceanography
• a. All Forms of Precipitation – impair the visibility so that you can see only short
distance and objects may not be recognizable.
• b. Haze – This is caused by solid particles in the air, such smoke from factories and
forest fires, sea spray, and dust from desert regions and volcanic eruptions blown by
strong winds to the sea.
• c. Blizzard – This is a violent intensely cold wind laden with snow. Meteorology and
Oceanography 1
• d. Fog – Refers to condensed water vapor close to the surface of the sea and land –
Advection fog also called sea fog is sometimes very thick (pea-soup fog) so that
your visibility is reduced to only a few feet.
 Visibility is reduced by the presence of
particles in the atmosphere, near the earth’s
surface and define ‘fog’, ‘mist’ and haze
• Deposition is the process of converting water vapor directly to ice, that
is, from the gaseous state directly to solid state skipping the liquid state;
occurs when the temperature of the air is below the freezing point.
Sublimation, means conversion of ice/ snow to vapor without passing
the liquid state.
• Determining the distance of visibility in daytime in the open when an
object is first sighted visually use the radar to determine its distance. At
night lights sighted visually may be used together with radar ranges.
• Visibility at night If there is no change in weather conditions the
visibility condition just after dark will be the same as that just before
dark. When there is the presence of “loom” around the vessel’s
navigation lights, this indicates that visibility has deteriorated. In this
case take the necessary precautions in restricted visibility.
 Visibility is reduced by the presence of
particles in the atmosphere, near the
earth’s surface
• Visibility is a measure of the clarity of the atmosphere. It is more properly known as
the Meteorological Optical Range (MOR). Visibility (Met Vis) –is the greatest
horizontal distance at which suitable objects can be recognised for what they are in
daylight or –at which lights of specified intensity can be seen at night by a person
with normal sight. Where the visibility is variable the lowest value is reported.
Meteorological Visibility
• Visibility & Visibility reducing phenomena FOG, MIST & HAZE
• Fog/Mist/Haze Fog: –is composed of small water droplets in suspension (or ice
crystals in ice fog). –Visibility is reduced to less than 1000 m. –Relative humidity is
generally 100%. –Plentiful supply of condensation nuclei.
• Types of Fog - Radiation Fog - Smoke Fog (Smog) - Advection Fog - Thaw Fog Arctic
Sea Smoke (Steam Fog)- Frontal Fog Hill Fog
• Mist: –is also caused by small droplets in suspension. –Visibility is 1000m or more. –
METAR and TAF codes impose an upper limit of 5000 m. –RH is at least 95% but less
than 100%. –Plentiful supply of condensation nuclei.
 Visibility is reduced by the presence of
particles in the atmosphere, near the
earth’s surface
• Haze: –caused by solid particles in suspension. –visiblity in haze may reduce to fog levels but
generally it is better and has an upper limit of 5000m for reporting purposes. –airborne solid
particles from industrial processes are the most frequent cause of haze as well as fires.
• Consists of solid particles produced by combustion (e.g forest fires) Conditions worse under
stable (subsiding air) atmosphere
• Smoke Reduction dependent upon: –Rate of production –Rate of dispersal by wind –Distance
from smoke source. Smoke can also produce the necessary hygroscopic nuclei for radiation to
form on
• Dust Particles less than 0.08mm in diameter Can be carried high in the atmosphere, especially
with wind speeds > 15kt
• Dust storm areas: –West & North Africa (Harmattan, Khamsin, etc) Dust storms occur in
daylight due to diurnal variation Particles may remain in suspension causing poor visibility for a
day or two
• Sand Consists of particles between 0.08 & 0.3mm in diameter Sand storms with winds of 20kt
or more A daylight event due to DV of wind
• Visibility Dust or sand storms imply a visibility < 1000m
 ‘fog’, ‘mist’ and haze
• Effect of Precipitation on Visibility Drizzle commonly restricts visibility
to between 500 metres and 3,000 metres. Light rain has virtually no
effect. Moderate rain can reduce visibility to 3-10 km. Heavy rain
showers of temperate latitudes rarely cause a reduction below 1,000
metres.
• Effect of Precipitation on Visibility Snow and blown snow are both
very effective in restricting visibility to less than 1,000 m. Heavy snow
may lead to visibilities of the order of 50-250 metres.
• Visibility Reporting Problems Lack of reference objects e.g. at sea or
level snow areas. Depends on size, shape and colour of the object.
Object illumination and background.
 Classification of fogs as mixing,
cooling or evaporation fogs
• Classification of fogs and processes involved in their formation –
• There are several types of fog:
• Radiation Fog
• Precipitation Fog
• Advection Fog
• Steam Fog
• Upslope Fog
• Valley Fog
• Freezing Fog
• Ice Fog
 Fog
• Fog: Fog is a dense layer of water droplets suspended in the air that
forms when moist air is cooled to the point where it can no longer
hold all its moisture. Fog is typically thicker than mist and can reduce
visibility to less than 1 kilometre (0.6 miles). Fog can form in a variety
of ways, such as when warm, moist air moves over a cool surface, or
when cool air is trapped in a valley or basin
• Mist: Mist is a lighter and more diffuse layer of water droplets than
fog and forms when moisture in the air condenses into tiny droplets.
Mist typically reduces visibility to between 1and 2 kilometres (0.6 to
1.2 miles) and is often seen in humid or damp environments, such as
forests, lakes, and rivers
 Haze
• Haze: Haze is a layer of tiny particles or pollutants that scatter light
and reduce visibility. Unlike fog and mist, haze is not composed of
water droplets, but instead contains particles such as dust, smoke,
and pollution. Haze can occur in both urban and rural areas and can
reduce visibility to several kilometres (miles) or more, depending on
the concentration of particles in the air.
• The formation of fogs involves the process of supersaturation, which
occurs when air contains more moisture than it can hold at a
particular temperature and pressure. The excess moisture in the air
condenses into tiny water droplets or ice crystals, forming fog. The
processes that lead to supersaturation and fog formation can be
classified into three main types: mixing, cooling, and evaporation fogs
 Mixing Fog
• Mixing Fog : Mixing fog occurs when two air masses with different
moisture content and temperature mix together. When the warmer,
moist air rises and mixes with cooler, drier air, the moisture in the
warm air cools and condenses, forming fog. Mixing fogs are common
in coastal areas where warm, moist air from the sea meets cooler,
drier air from the land. They can also occur in urban areas where
warm, humid air from buildings mixes with cooler, drier air from open
spaces.
• Cooling Fog: Cooling fog occurs when air cools below its dew point
temperature, causing water vapor to condense into tiny droplets or
ice crystals. This type of fog is common in areas where moist air
moves over a colder surface, such as a body of water or a cool ground
surface. Radiation fog is a type of cooling fog that form
 Evaporation Fog
• Evaporation Fog: Evaporation fog occurs when cold air moves over a
warm water surface, causing water to evaporate and add moisture to
the air. This process creates a layer of saturated air above the water
surface, which can then cool and condense into fog as it moves over
cooler land or air masses. Steam fog is a type of evaporation fog that
forms over hot springs or lakes on cold mornings.
• Radiation fog is a type of cooling fog that forms on clear, calm nights
when the ground radiates heat and cools the air above it. This type of
fog is most common in areas with high humidity and clear skies, such
as valleys or low-lying areas. It is most likely to occur during the fall
and winter months when the nights are longer and the air is cooler.
 Radiation fog
• The formation of radiation fog can be explained as follows: During the
day, the sun heats the ground, which in turn heats the air above it. As
the sun sets, the ground begins to cool and the warm air near the
ground rises, creating a layer of cooler air near the surface. If the air is
humid enough, the moisture in the air will begin to condense as the
air cools below its dew point temperature, forming tiny water drop
lets or ice crystals. These tiny droplets or crystals then form a layer of
fog near the surface.
• Radiation fog is typically shallow, only a few meters deep, and can be
quite dense, reducing visibility to a few meters or less. It tends to
dissipate as the sunrises and the ground begins to warm up again,
causing the fog to evaporate. It can also be dispersed by light winds,
which can mix the fog with drier air and reduce its density
 Radiation fog -Pollution
• Pollution can have a significant effect on the formation of radiation fog. The presence of
pollutants in the air can act as nuclei for the condensation of water vapor, which can
increase the number of water droplets or ice crystals and decrease the size of the fog
particles. This can result in a higher number of smaller fog droplets, which can make the fog
denser and reduce visibility even further.
• In addition, pollution can also reduce the amount of heat that radiates from the ground, as
it can act as a blanket, trapping heat near the surface. This can lead to a smaller
temperature difference between the ground and the air above it, which can reduce the
formation of radiation fog.
• Furthermore, pollutants can also interact with the fog droplets, altering their chemical
composition and making them more acidic. This can increase the amount of water vapor
that is absorbed by the fog droplets, which can delay or prevent the dissipation of the fog.
• In summary, pollution can have a negative effect on the formation and dissipation of
radiation fog, making it denser and reducing visibility. This highlights the importance of
reducing pollution levels to minimize the impacts on fog formation and its associated
hazards.
• Overall, the effect of pollution on the formation of radiation fog depends on a number of
factors, including the type and amount of pollutants present, the temperature and humidity
levels, and other local weather conditions
 Radiation fog
• Radiation fog forms over land and on banks of rivers but it sometimes
drifts over coastal waters. At night when the cooling of the ground is
intense warm air just above it also cools at dew point then fog forms and
an inversion (increase of temperature with height) tends to develop so
that temperature of the air at ground level is cooler than the upper level.
When strong inversion forms at low levels (ground level) it prevents
convection and traps all the industrial smoke and other forms of pollution
in the air and mixes with radiation fog forms smog in industrial areas.
• Radiation Fog: This fog forms when all solar energy exits the earth and
allows the temperature to meet up with the dew point. The best
condition to have radiation fog is when it had rained the previous night.
This help to moisten up the soil and create higher dew points. This makes
it easier for the air to become saturated and form fog. However, the
winds must be light less than 15 mph to prevent moist and dry from
mixing.
 Fogs
• Fogs may also form in warm fronts due to the mixing of cold air with warm air
lowering its temperature to dew point then condensation occurs, called mixing of
fog or frontal fog.
• Precipitation Fog: This is fog that forms when rain is falling through cold air. This is
common with a warm fronts but it can occur with cold fronts as well only if it's not
moving too fast. Cold air, dry at the surface while rain is falling through it evaporates
and causes the dew point to rise. This saturation forms fog.
• Valley Fog: Valley fog forms in the valley when the soil is moist from previous rainfall.
As the skies clear solar energy exits earth and allow the temperature to cool near or
at the dew point. This form deep fog, so dense it's sometimes called tule fog.
• Freezing Fog: Freezing fog occurs when the temperature falls at 32°F (0°C) or below.
This fog produces drizzle and these tiny droplets freeze when they come into contact
with an object. But at the same time there is sublimation going on.
• Ice Fog: This type of fog is only seen in the polar and artic regions. Temperatures at
14 F (-10°C) is too cold for the air to contain super-cooled water droplets so it forms
small tiny ice crystal
 Advection fog
• Advection fog forms when warm moist air blows over a cold surface
of the sea and is cooled below its dew point. This type of fog is
commonly encountered at sea and is quite dense and lasts for long
period.
• Advection Fog: This type of fog forms from surface contact of
horizontal winds. This fog can occur with windy conditions. Warm air,
moist air blows in from the south and if there is snow or cool
moisture on the ground it will come in contact with the warm, moist
winds. This contact between the air and ground will cause the air
blowing in to become cool. Then dew point rises and creates high
humidity and forms fog.
 Advection fog
• Advection fog is a type of fog that forms when warm, moist air moves horizontally
over a colder surface and cools below its dew point temperature, causing water
vapor to condense into fog. This type of fog is common in coastal areas where
warm, moist air from the sea moves over colder land surfaces. It can also occur in
other areas where moist air moves over a cold surface, such as a lake or snow-
covered ground
• The formation of advection fog can be explained as follows: Warm, moist air from
the sea moves over a colder land surface, causing the air to cool below its dew point
temperature. The moisture in the air then condenses into tiny water droplets or ice
crystals, forming fog. Advection fog is often thick and can reduce visibility to only a
few meters
• The reasons for the dispersal of advection fog are similar to those of other types of
fog. It can be dispersed by winds, which can mix the fog with drier air and reduce its
density. It can also be dispersed by a change in temperature, such as when the sun
comes out and warms the surface, causing the fog to evaporate.
 Frost smoke or Artic sea smoke
• Frost smoke or Artic sea smoke – Occurs in winter in high latitudes when
very cold air blows over a relatively warmer sea surface where
evaporation is taking place. The water vapor evaporated is immediately
chilled by contact with the cold air and condenses to form fog giving the
appearance of streaming. This occurs mostly in the Arctic and Antarctic
waters, sometimes in the Baltic and in the Newfoundland area and in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence.
• This kind of fog is an evaporation fog and is usually shallow and in patches.
Extensive and deep sea smoke is locally called “ice-crystal fog”. As
explained above, fogs could be classified as mixing, cooling, or evaporation
fog. Advection fog occurs mainly in summer months in British Isles, Bank
of Newfoundland, west coast of North America, Japan, west coast of South
Africa and South America. Radiation fog is persistent in winter. Stronger
winds and the heat from the sun disperse (scatter and dissolve) fogs.
 Sea smoke
• SEA SMOKE is a meteorological event caused by the interaction of cool air and
warm water. Often seen in coastal regions, sea smoke is sometimes known as
advection or steam fog, and has a distinct appearance that can make a body of
water appear to be smoking or steaming. Sea smoke frequently dissipates
quickly, thanks to the warming action of the ocean on the frigid air.
• The formation of sea smoke occurs when cold, dry air moves over the
relatively warmer water, causing the water to evaporate and rise into the air.
As the water vapor rises, it cools and condenses into tiny water droplets,
forming a cloud that appears like smoke rising from the surface of the water.
• Sea smoke is often encountered in areas where there is a large temperature
difference between the air and the water. This typically occurs in polar regions
where the air is extremely cold and the water is relatively warmer due to
geothermal heating or warmer ocean currents.
 Sea smoke
• In addition, sea smoke may be encountered in areas where cold, dry
air from the interior moves over relatively warmer bodies of water,
such as large lakes or rivers. The temperature difference between the
air and the water can lead to the formation of sea smoke, even in
areas that are not typically associated with extremely cold
temperatures.
• Seaway and adjacent ocean areas. During winter it occurs in the Baltic
Sea which is surrounded by a colder land mass, and in higher latitudes
it is associated with cold winds from the Arctic Basin and the ice
covered sea areas to the south. In lower latitudes it occurs
occasionally in the Gulf of Mexico and off Hong Kong
Methods of estimating the visibility at sea, by day and by
night, and the difficulties involved
• Visibility at sea is also affected by the time of day, water and air
temperature, humidity levels, and wind speed. In terms of analysis of
factors influencing the visibility, many studies have shown that atmospheric
visibility is closely related to meteorological conditions such as humidity and
wind speed and weather phenomena such as fog, precipitation and dust.
• The human observer on dry land measures visibility by determining the
greatest distance at which he can distinguish objects, ideally black, against
the horizon sky with the unaided eye. At night, an equivalent is obtained by
using lights of known intensities at various distances. At sea the Officer of
the watch has no fixed reference points unless, of course, the visibility is
very poor and he is using the various objects on deck. In reasonable
visibility he uses his long experience by looking at the horizon and seeing
how sharp it is, trying to see other vessels that he has detected on his radar
and so on. At night, he will use the brightness of the stars, how well he can
see the cloud, the clarity of lights on board and so on.
Methods of estimating the visibility at sea, by day and by
night, and the difficulties involved
• The ability to distinguish objects by day or see lights at night is determined
by scattering of light by dust, smoke, water and other particulate matter in
the air. The greater the scattering of light, the poorer will be the visibility.
The extreme case is dense fog at night when light is scattered directly back
at your car headlights.
• Of course, there is a certain amount of subjectivity and much will depend
upon eyesight and the skill and experience of the observer. I would have
been a very poor officer of the watch
• Meteorological observing has long been a combination of instrumental
measurement and descriptive observation. Because of increasing manpower
costs, the need to obtain data more frequently, and in often hostile or
remote environments, there has been much development of automatic
observing systems. These now include measurements of amount and height
of cloud and the present weather eg is it raining
 Methods of estimating the visibility at sea, by day and by night, and the
difficulties involved

• Estimating visibility at sea can be difficult because it's difficult to

detect the effects of haze when looking through a relatively short
distance of atmosphere
• In reasonable visibility he uses his long experience by looking at
the horizon and seeing how sharp it is, trying to see other vessels
that he has detected on his radar and so on. At night, he will use
the brightness of the stars, how well he can see the cloud, the
clarity of lights on board and so on.
• By Day:1.Using the Beaufort Scale: The Beaufort Scale is a scale
that estimates windspeed and wave height, which can be used to
estimate visibility. The higher the wind speed and wave height, the
lower the visibility.
Methods of estimating the visibility at sea, by day and by night, and
the difficulties involved

• 2.Visual Observations: Observers can use visual cues to estimate

visibility, such as the distance at which objects such as ships, buoys or
land can be seen.
• By Night:1.Radar: Radar is commonly used to estimate visibility at
night. It works by emitting radio waves and measuring the time it
takes for them to bounce back after hitting an object. The longer it
takes for the waves to return, the farther away the object is.
• 2.Lights: Observers can use the visibility of lights, such as lighthouses,
buoys, and other ships, to estimate visibility at night. By knowing the
brightness of the light and the distance it can be seen, visibility can be
estimated.
 Methods of estimating the visibility at sea, by day and by night, and the
difficulties involved

• Difficulties involved in estimating visibility at sea include:

• 1.Weather conditions: Visibility is often reduced during fog,
rain, snow, and haze, making it challenging to estimate.
• 2.Perception: Perception can vary between observers,
making it difficult to standardize visibility estimates.
• 3.Distance: It can be challenging to estimate distances
accurately at sea, especially if there are no landmarks or
reference points available.
• 4.Equipment limitations: Equipment such as radar can be
affected by interference, and visual cues can be affected by
glare or reflections
• Visibility is defined as the maximum distance at which the following
objects can be clearly seen and distinguished. Visibility at sea is a crucial
factor in safe navigation and is affected by several atmospheric and
oceanic conditions. The primary factors that impact visibility at sea
include fog, mist, haze, precipitation, and sea spray.
• Visibility is reduced by the presence of particles in the atmosphere near
the Earth's surface, which can be caused by various natural and human
activities such as wildfires, pollution, and dust storms. The reduction in
visibility can make it difficult to see objects at a distance and can pose
hazards to transportation and outdoor activities
• there are forward scatter instruments. These emit a beam of light and
sensors a little way off the direct, narrow beam, measure only light that
has been scattered. Poor visibility leads to more scattering and,
therefore, more light at the sensors
 Water vapour
• Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It
is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced
from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice.
Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the atmosphere.
• Water is constantly cycling through the atmosphere. Water evaporates from
the Earth's surface and rises on warm updrafts into the atmosphere. It
condenses into clouds, is blown by the wind, and then falls back to the Earth
as rain or snow. This cycle is one important way that heat and energy are
transferred from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere, and transported
from one place to another on our planet.
• Water vapor is also the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Heat radiated from Earth's surface is absorbed by water vapor molecules in
the lower atmosphere. The water vapor molecules, in turn, radiate heat in all
directions. Some of the heat returns to the Earth's surface. Thus, water vapor
is a second source of warmth (in addition to sunlight) at the Earth's surface.
 Water vapour
• Water vapor, water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It
is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced
from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice.
Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the atmosphere.
• Water is constantly cycling through the atmosphere. Water evaporates from
the Earth's surface and rises on warm updrafts into the atmosphere. It
condenses into clouds, is blown by the wind, and then falls back to the Earth
as rain or snow. This cycle is one important way that heat and energy are
transferred from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere, and transported
from one place to another on our planet.
• Water vapor is also the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
Heat radiated from Earth's surface is absorbed by water vapor molecules in
the lower atmosphere. The water vapor molecules, in turn, radiate heat in all
directions. Some of the heat returns to the Earth's surface. Thus, water vapor
is a second source of warmth (in addition to sunlight) at the Earth's surface.
 Water vapour
• Water vapor in the lower atmosphere is an important greenhouse
gas which has profound effect on local as well as global climate. It
plays a crucial role in the radiation budget and various atmospheric
processes like convection, precipitation etc. High spatial and
temporal variability of water vapor makes its quantification very
challenging. But quantitative knowledge about its distribution is
absolutely essential for weather forecasting and climate study.
• The diurnal variation of IWV depends on the incoming solar
radiation, level of surface hydration, local topography and also on
water vapor diffusion and transportation. Its knowledge is essential
to improve short term weather forecasting.
 Properties of water vapour in the
atmosphere
• Greenhouse gas- Water vapor is the most significant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. It
absorbs heat from the Earth's surface and radiates it back in all directions, making it a secondary
source of warmth.
• Density -Water vapor is less dense than most other air constituents. At standard temperature
and pressure (STP), the density of water vapor is 0.804 g/liter, while dry air has a density of 1.27
g/liter.
• Concentration -The concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere is determined by the
temperature of the lower atmosphere and surface. The concentration increases as the
temperature rises, approaching 100% at 100°C.
• Distribution -Nearly half of the total water in the air is between sea level and about 1.5 km above
sea level. Less than 5-6% of the water is above 5 km, and less than 1% is in the stratosphere.
• Formation -Water vapor is created by the evaporation or boiling of liquid water, or by the
sublimation of ice.
• Removal -Water vapor is removed from the atmosphere by condensation.
• Effects -Water vapor contributes to the global water cycle, making wet regions wetter and dry
regions drier. It also fuels intense storms, particularly over land, resulting in more extreme
weather events.
 Properties of water vapour in the
atmosphere
• Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the atmosphere.
Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously
generated by evaporation and removed by condensation. It is less
dense than most of the other constituents of air and triggers
convection currents that can lead to clouds and fogs.
• Water vapor is a critical component of Earth's climate systems. It is
the Earth's primary greenhouse gas, trapping more heat than carbon
dioxide. Movement of water vapor, and its associated latent heat of
vaporization, is also responsible for about 50% of the transport of
heat from the tropics to the poles.
 Water vapour
• Water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within
the hydrosphere. Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid
water or from the sublimation of ice. Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the
atmosphere. Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by
evaporation and removed by condensation. It is less dense than most of the other
constituents of air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds and fog.
• Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it is particularly abundant in
Earth's atmosphere, where it acts as a greenhouse gas and warming feedback, contributing
more to total greenhouse effect than non-condensable gases such as carbon dioxide and
methane. Use of water vapor, as steam, has been important for cooking, and as a major
component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution.
• Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent, present even in the solar
atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects
including natural satellites, comets and even large asteroids.
• Water vapor, which reacts to temperature changes, is referred to as a 'feedback', because it
amplifies the effect of forces that initially cause the warming. Therefore, it is a greenhouse gas
 Evaporation’, ‘condensation’, ‘latent heat of vaporization

• Evaporation, condensation, and latent heat of vaporization are all related

to the phase changes of substances:
• Evaporation- The process of a liquid turning into a gas, also known as
boiling. It occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point. Evaporation is
a type of vaporization that happens below the boiling point.
• Condensation -The process of a gas or vapor turning into a liquid. It
occurs when a gas or vapor loses energy or gains pressure. The latent
heat of condensation is the heat released when a substance condenses.
• Latent heat of vaporization - The amount of heat required to change a
substance from a liquid to a gas at its boiling point, while keeping the
temperature constant. Latent heat is usually measured in calories or
joules per mass of the substance
 Evaporation’, ‘condensation’, ‘latent
heat of vaporization
• Condensation is the change from a vapor to a condensed state (solid or
liquid). Evaporation is the change of a liquid to a gas.
• Evaporation is the process in which the liquid turns into vapors. It is the
main process through which water returns back to water cycle as
atmospheric vapor. Latent heat is known as the heat of transformation,
the word latent means hidden as it is the hidden energy required to
change the state of a substance at constant temperature conditions.
• In thermodynamics, the enthalpy of vaporization , also known as the
(latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of
energy that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a quantity
of that substance into a gas.
• The latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to convert
a unit mass of a liquid into vapor without a change in temperature
 Evaporation

• Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface and diffuses into a surrounding gas, it is said
to have evaporated. Each individual water molecule which transitions between a more
associated (liquid) and a less associated (vapor/gas) state does so through the absorption
or release of kinetic energy. The aggregate measurement of this kinetic energy transfer is
defined as thermal energy and occurs only when there is differential in the temperature of
the water molecules. Liquid water that becomes water vapor takes a parcel of heat with it,
in a process called evaporative cooling. The amount of water vapor in the air determines
how frequently molecules will return to the surface. When a net evaporation occurs, the
body of water will undergo a net cooling directly related to the loss of water.
• Evaporative cooling is restricted by atmospheric conditions. Humidity is the amount of
water vapor in the air. The vapor content of air is measured with devices known as
hygrometers. The measurements are usually expressed as specific humidity or percent
relative humidity. The temperatures of the atmosphere and the water surface determine
the equilibrium vapor pressure; 100% relative humidity occurs when the partial pressure
of water vapor is equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure. This condition is often referred
to as complete saturation. Humidity ranges from 0 grams per cubic metre in dry air to 30
grams per cubic metre (0.03 ounce per cubic foot) when the vapor is saturated at 30 °C.
 Condensation

• Clouds, formed by condensed water vapor

• Water vapor will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the
dew point temperature, or when the water vapor equilibrium in air has been exceeded.
When water vapor condenses onto a surface, a net warming occurs on that surface.[9] The
water molecule brings heat energy with it. In turn, the temperature of the atmosphere
drops slightly.[10] In the atmosphere, condensation produces clouds, fog and precipitation
(usually only when facilitated by cloud condensation nuclei). The dew point of an air parcel
is the temperature to which it must cool before water vapor in the air begins to condense.
Condensation in the atmosphere forms cloud droplets.
• Also, a net condensation of water vapor occurs on surfaces when the temperature of the
surface is at or below the dew point temperature of the atmosphere. Deposition is a phase
transition separate from condensation which leads to the direct formation of ice from
water vapor. Frost and snow are examples of deposition.
• There are several mechanisms of cooling by which condensation occurs: 1) Direct loss of
heat by conduction or radiation. 2) Cooling from the drop in air pressure which occurs with
uplift of air, also known as adiabatic cooling. Air can be lifted by mountains, which deflect
the air upward, by convection, and by cold and warm fronts. 3) Advective cooling - cooling
due to horizontal movement of air.
• Saturated air is air that contains the maximum amount of water vapor
it can hold at a given temperature and pressure. The relative humidity
of saturated air is 100%
• Unsaturated air is the opposite of saturated air, meaning it contains
less water vapor and can hold more. The relative humidity of
unsaturated air is less than 100%
• Saturated air is the air that contains or holds the maximum capacity of
water vapour in it. The amount or maximum limit of water vapour that
a given quantity of air can hold is called saturated vapour
 Processes of mixing, cooling and the evaporation of
water vapour, by which a sample of air
• As the water evaporates, it adds more water vapor to the cold air, causing it to
become saturated. Before this mixing, the cold air was not saturated nor was
the air with the water vapor from the lake. But after mixing, the cold air
gained enough water vapor to reach saturation
• Clouds are saturated portions of the atmosphere where small water droplets
or ice crystals have fall velocities so slow that they appear visibly suspended in
the air. Thus, to understand clouds we need to understand how air can
become saturated
• Unsaturated air parcels can reach saturation by three processes: cooling,
adding moisture, or mixing. The first two processes are where saturation is
reached by either cooling until the temperature equals the dew point
temperature, or adding moisture until the dew point temperature is raised to
the actual ambient temperature
• Mixing-Mixing of two unsaturated parcels can result in a saturated mixture.
Jet contrails and your breath on a cold winter day are examples of clouds that
Dewpoint’, ‘absolute humidity’, ‘relative humidity
• Humidity is a measure of how much water vapor is in the air. There are a variety
of ways to measure humidity. Some are proportional to the actual number of
water vapor molecules in the air - these are measures of absolute humidity (e.g.
vapor pressure, mixing ratio, dew point temperature). Other ways describe how
close the air is to saturation (e.g. relative humidity ).
• Dewpoint, absolute humidity, and relative humidity are all ways to measure
water vapor in the air, but they have different meanings
• Absolute humidity - The amount of water vapor in the air, measured in grams of
water per cubic meter of air. This measurement doesn't consider the air's
temperature.
• Relative humidity - The amount of water vapor in the air relative to the air's
temperature, expressed as a percentage.
• Dewpoint -The temperature at which the air needs to be cooled to reach 100%
relative humidity. At this point, the air is saturated and can't hold any more water
vapor in gas form
• Water vapour present in the air is known as Humidity.
• The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is
known as the absolute humidity.
• It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is
expressed in terms of grams per cubic metre.
• The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the surface of
the earth.
• The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its
temperature (Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air).
 Relative Humidity
• The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity
at a given temperature is known as the relative humidity.
• Relative Humidity = [Actual amount of water vapor in air (absolute humidity)/humidity
at saturation point (the maximum water vapor air can hold at a given temperature)] X
100
• With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or
decreases and the relative humidity is also affected.
• Relative humidity is greater over the oceans and least over the continents (absolute
humidity is greater over oceans because of greater availability of water for
evaporation).
• The relative humidity determines the amount and rate of evaporation and hence it is
an important climatic factor.
• Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be
‘saturated’. At this temperature, the air cannot hold any additional amount of moisture.
Thus, relative humidity of the saturated air is 100%.
• If the air has half the amount of moisture that it can carry, then it is unsaturated and its
relative humidity is only 50%.
 Dew Point
• The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature
is said to be saturated.
• It means that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding
any additional amount of moisture at that stage.
• The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is
known as dew point.
• Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity = 100%.
 Supercooling
• Supercooling is the process of lowering a liquid's temperature below its
freezing point without it solidifying. Frost point is a temperature
measurement that's accurate to within a few hundredths of a degree.
• Supercooling- Supercooling can occur in small amounts of water, and is also
common in woody plants. In plants, supercooling can help prevent
intracellular freezing and limit dehydration.
• Frost point- Frost point is a temperature measurement that's accurate to
within a few hundredths of a degree over a range of temperatures relevant
to Earth
• As per the established international definition, supercooling means 'cooling
a substance below the normal freezing point without solidification' While it
can be achieved by different physical means, the postponed solidification is
most often due to the absence of seed crystals or nuclei around which a
crystal structure can form. Supercooled water can occur naturally, for
example in the atmosphere, animals or plants.
 Frost point
• The frost point is the temperature at which the air is saturated with respect to water
vapor over an ice surface. Frost point, temperature, below 0° C, at which moisture in
the air will condense as a layer of frost on any exposed surface
• When the temperature is below the freezing point of water, the dew point is called
the frost point, as frost is formed via deposition rather than condensation to form
dew.
• The frost point is the temperature at which water vapor in the air condenses into
frost on a surface that is cooler than 0° C. It's similar to the dew point, which is the
temperature at which water vapor condenses into liquid water. Both the frost point
and the dew point are dependent on the relative humidity of the air
• Frost is often formed on the ground or on objects near the ground, even when the
official surface temperature is above freezing. This is because cold air is heavier and
will remain close to the ground, allowing the surface temperature to continue to
drop. This is especially common on clear, calm nights in the fall and winter.
• Dew is condensed water vapor forming liquid on surfaces, occurring above the
freezing point. Frost is water vapor that deposits as ice on surfaces when
temperatures are below freezing
 Diurnal and seasonal variation of water vapour
• Water vapor varies diurnally and seasonally due to the solar cycle and temperature changes.
• Diurnal variation - Water vapor density is highest in the morning and lowest in the afternoon.
• The solar cycle drives the humidity cycle by increasing evaporation and warming the air.
• Warmer air can hold more moisture.
• The diurnal variation of water vapor affects the surface temperature, precipitation, and
evapotranspiration.
• Seasonal variation
• Water vapor is highest in the summer and lowest in the winter.
• Water vapor density increases as the temperature increases from winter to summer.
• Relationship to solar radiation
• The solar cycle drives the humidity cycle through the temperature cycle.
• The diurnal cycle of solar radiation generates sea/land breezes.
• The intensity of the solar radiation affects the extent of the mixed layer, which carries moisture from the
lower layers upwards.
• Relationship to temperature
• Water vapor density increases as the temperature increases. Warmer air can hold more moisture.