BRAIN

The Coverings

 The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by three layers of
tissue called meninges. From the outermost layer inward they are: the dura
mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
 Dura mater: is a strong, thick membrane that closely lines the inside of the
skull; its two layers, the periosteal and meningeal dura, are fused and
separate only to form venous sinuses. The dura creates little folds or
compartments.
 Arachnoid mater: is a thin, web-like membrane that covers the entire brain.
The arachnoid is made of elastic tissue. The space between the dura and
arachnoid membranes is called the subdural space.
 Pia mater: hugs the surface of the brain following its folds and grooves.
The pia mater has many blood vessels that reach deep into the brain. The
space between the arachnoid and pia is called the subarachnoid space. It is
here where the cerebrospinal fluid bathes and cushions the brain.
Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In
the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter
describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order is
reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.
Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell
bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects
neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different
composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain
scans.
 Structure of Brain

 The brain can be divided into three main divisions early in

our development that later subdivide into smaller divisions.
The three primary divisions are the forebrain, the midbrain,
and the hindbrain.
 The forebrain includes the cortex, basal ganglia, and the
limbic system. The midbrain is important for both sensory
and motor functions. The hindbrain includes the medulla,
pons, and cerebellum.
 HINDBRAIN
 The hindbrain is located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the
spinal cord. It contains the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum (collectively
known as the brainstem).
 The hindbrain mostly coordinates autonomic functions that are essential to
survival.
 The medulla controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system,
such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate.
 The pons, which is Latin for “bridge,” is located just beneath the midbrain and
just above the medulla. It is a group of nerves that are involved in arousal, sleep,
motor control, and muscle tone (Patel & Sugano, 2018).
 The cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”) receives messages from muscles,
tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, and
movement, and facilitate motor learning.
 The cerebellum is also thought to be an important area for processing procedural
memory. Most disorders of the cerebellum are associated with serious motor
impairment.
 MIDBRAIN

 The second area of the brain is the midbrain, which lies on top of
the brainstem. The midbrain is involved in auditory and visual
processing (Peters, 2017).
 It is also responsible for eye movement. There are three parts to
the midbrain: the colliculi, the tegmentum, and the cerebral
peduncles.
 The colliculi process visual and auditory signals before they are
relayed to the occipital and temporal lobes.
 The tegmentum is involved in movement coordination and
alertness. Lastly, the cerebral peduncles play an important part
in the central nervous system.
 FOREBRAIN
 The forebrain is a mammal’s brain’s largest and most obvious part. The
outer layer is called the cerebral cortex and consists of the cerebral
hemispheres, which account for two-thirds of the brain’s total mass.
 Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes (frontal,
parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes), each associated with different
functions.
Each pair has one lobe on the left side of the brain and another on the
right.
 The right and left hemispheres of the brain are connected by a network
of nerve fibers known as the corpus callosum.
 Damage to this region causes split-brain, where the hemispheres act
independently from each other.
 Under the cortex are a number of other structures, including
the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, basal ganglia,
hippocampus, and amygdala, some of which form the limbic system
(involved in emotional behavior, motivation, and learning).
 Limbic System
 The thalamus is a sensory relay for the brain. All of our senses, with the
exception of smell, are routed through the thalamus before being directed
to other areas of the brain for processing.
 The forebrain also features important structures in the limbic system, which
controls basic emotions and psychological drives. The limbic system is
made up of a number of different structures, but three of the most
important are the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus.
 A critical component of the limbic system is the amygdala, which is an
almond-shaped set of neurons responsible for the processing of emotions.
 Another important part of the limbic system is the hippocampus, which is
responsible for long-term memory formation.
 There are two other major structures of the limbic system worth
mentioning: the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus is
considered to be the neural railway station of the brain.
 Sensory input from the body travels to the thalamus, where it is then
relayed to the rest of the brain as a specific sensation. The thalamus is also
involved with consciousness, alertness, and sleep.
 Located between the two halves of the thalamus is the pineal
gland: a pea-shaped gland that regulates sleep.
 The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain near the
pituitary gland, and it is involved with pleasure, food, body
temperature, and sex. If the body temperature gets too high, the
hypothalamus instructs the body to sweat.
 If the body is cold, the hypothalamus will cause shivers. Irregular
hypothalamic behavior can, in turn, lead to sweating and
shivering when these reactions are not needed.
 The hypothalamus also regulates the pituitary gland and
regulates the other hormone-releasing glands in the body. For
this reason, it is often referred to as the “master gland” of the
endocrine system.
Lobes of the brain
 The frontal lobe involves
voluntary movement,
reasoning, impulse control,
language, and speech
 Broca’s Area is part of the left
frontal lobe and is associated
with speech production.
 This damage forever changed
his personality. Friends and
relatives described him as a
changed man who became
bitter and aggressive.
 The parietal lobe is mainly
involved with processing
the sense of touch, limb
position, and spatial
awareness (Adair & Meador,
2003).
 Damage to the parietal
lobe typically involves loss
of these abilities in the
parts of the body opposite
the lesion. This is due to the
brain’s contralateral
function, meaning that the
right side of the brain is
responsible for activity on
the left side of the body and
vice versa.
 The temporal lobe is
primarily responsible for
processing auditory
stimuli (Smith, 2007).
 A region in the temporal
lobe known
as Wernicke’s
area comprehends the
sounds we hear by
translating different
pitches and frequencies
into meaning.
 The temporal lobe also
communicates with the
hippocampus in the
production of long-term
memory.
 The occipital lobe is located
at the rear end of the
cerebral cortex and is known
to be the visual processing
center of the brain (Bailey,
2019).
 Brodmann Area the primary
visual cortex, is in the
occipital lobe – it determines
the size, shape, and location
of objects in the field of
vision.
 Damage to the occipital lobe
can cause an inability to
identify colors, loss of visual
capacity, and even
hallucinations.